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PubMed1986

Children's concepts of physical illness: a review and critique of the cognitive-developmental literature.

Cognitive-developmental studies relevant to children's concepts of physical illness are reviewed and critiqued. Although numerous methodological weaknesses make firm conclusions difficult, most data appear to suggest that children's concepts of illness do evolve in a systematic and predictable sequence consistent with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Methodological weaknesses identified include poor description of samples, assessment instruments, and procedures; lack of control over potential observer bias, expectancy effects, and other confounding variables; and minimal attention to reliability and validity issues. Increased methodological rigor and a further explication of the specific and unique ways in which children's concepts of illness develop over the course of cognitive development could substantially increase the value of these studies for professionals in pediatric health care settings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: a reply to Russell's mistaken critique.

J. A. Russell (1994) misrepresents what universality means, misinterprets the evidence from past studies, and fails to consider or report findings that disagree with his position. New data are introduced that decisively answer the central question that Russell raises about the use of a forced-choice format in many of the past studies. This article also shows that his many other qualms about other aspects of the design of the studies of literate cultures have no merit. Russell's critique of the preliterate cultures is inaccurate; he does not fully disclose what those who studied preliterate subjects did or what they concluded that they had found. Taking account of all of Russell's qualms, my analysis shows that the evidence from both literate and preliterate cultures is overwhelming in support of universals in facial expressions.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗
PubMed2001

The validity and appropriateness of methods, analyses, and conclusions in Rind et al. (1998): A rebuttal of victimological critique from Ondersma et al. (2001) and Dallam et al. (2001).

The authors respond to 2 victimological critiques of their 1998 meta-analysis on child sexual abuse (CSA). S. J. Dallam et al. (2001) claimed that B. Rind, P. Tromovitch, and R. Bauserman (1998) committed numerous methodological and statistical errors, and often miscoded and misinterpreted data. The authors show all these claims to be invalid. To the contrary, they demonstrate frequent bias in Dallam et al.'s criticisms. S. J. Ondersma et al. (2001) claimed that Rind et al.'s study is part of a backlash against psychotherapists, that its suggestions regarding CSA definitions were extrascientific, and that the moral standard is needed to understand CSA scientifically. The authors show their suggestions to have been scientific and argue that it is Ondersma et al.'s issue-framing and moral standard that are extrascientific. This reply supports the original methods, analyses, recommendations, and conclusions of Rind et al.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2002

Acute stress disorder: a synthesis and critique.

The diagnosis of acute stress disorder (ASD) was introduced to describe initial trauma reactions that predict chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This review outlines and critiques the rationales underpinning the ASD diagnosis and highlights conceptual and empirical problems inherent in this diagnosis. The authors conclude that there is little justification for the ASD diagnosis in its present form. The evidence for and against the current emphasis on peritraumatic dissociation is discussed, and the range of biological and cognitive mechanisms that potentially mediate acute trauma response are reviewed. The available evidence indicates that alternative means of conceptualizing acute trauma reactions and identifying acutely traumatized people who are at risk of developing PTSD need to be considered.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

Searching for the structure of coping: a review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping.

From analyzing 100 assessments of coping, the authors critiqued strategies and identified best practices for constructing category systems. From current systems, a list of 400 ways of coping was compiled. For constructing lower order categories, the authors concluded that confirmatory factor analysis should replace the 2 most common strategies (exploratory factor analysis and rational sorting). For higher order categories, they recommend that the 3 most common distinctions (problem- vs. emotion-focused, approach vs. avoidance, and cognitive vs. behavioral) no longer be used. Instead, the authors recommend hierarchical systems of action types (e.g., proximity seeking, accommodation). From analysis of 6 such systems, 13 potential core families of coping were identified. Future steps involve deciding how to organize these families, using their functional homogeneity and distinctiveness, and especially their links to adaptive processes.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1998

A critique of Bem's "Exotic Becomes Erotic" theory of sexual orientation.

Two critiques of D. J. Bem's (1996) "Exotic Becomes Erotic" (EBE) theory of sexual orientation are presented. First, the core proposition of EBE theory is considered; that is, the idea that adults are erotically attracted to the gender-based class of peers (males or females) who were dissimilar or unfamiliar to them in childhood. Studies cited by Bem and additional research show that EBE theory is not supported by scientific evidence. Second, Bem's claim that his theory applies equally to both sexes is questioned; instead the argument that it neglects and misrepresents women's experiences is made. Bem's conceptualization of erotic desire and his analysis of gender nonconformity illustrate this problem. It is suggested that different theories may be needed to explain the development of men's and women's sexual orientation.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

The primacy of primary control is a human universal: a reply to Gould's (1999) critique of the life-span theory of control.

This reply to S. J. Gould's (1999) critique of J. Heckhausen and R. Schulz's (1995) life-span theory of control addresses four issues: (1) the universal claim that primary control holds functional primacy over secondary control, (2) the status of secondary control as a confederate to primary control, (3) empirical evidence and paradigms for investigating universality and cultural variations, and (4) the capacity of the human control system to manage both gains and losses in control throughout the life span and aging-related decline in particular. Theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence from evolutionary, comparative, developmental, and cultural psychology are presented to support the authors' view that primary control striving holds functional primacy throughout the life span and across cultural and historical settings. Recommendations for empirically investigating the variations in the way primary control striving is expressed in different cultures are outlined.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Expanding variance and the case of historical changes in IQ means: a critique of Dickens and Flynn (2001).

The Flynn effect is the rise in mean IQ scores during the 20th century, amounting to about 0.33 IQ points per year. Many theoretical explanations have been proposed, though none are universally accepted. W. Dickens and J. R. Flynn's (2001) new approach explains the large IQ changes by means of recursive models of IQ growth. A salient feature of their models is that IQ phenotypes and their supportive environments are correlated; in addition, environmental effects can rebound on phenotypic IQ to increase or lower IQ. In this critique, the authors examine an empirical challenge to their models, which typically imply large changes in IQ variance. However, the historical rise in IQ mean level has not been accompanied by substantial variance changes, a finding inconsistent with the properties of the proposed model.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Exploring quality of life following high spinal cord injury: a review and critique.

STUDY DESIGN: Review. OBJECTIVES: To explore the concept of quality of life (QOL), critique the practice and problems of assessing QOL following spinal cord injury (SCI) and to review the findings of studies into QOL for people with SCI both below and above the level of C4. METHODS: Relevant articles were identified from the Medline and CINAHL databases for approximately the period 1990-2003, cross-indexing 'spinal cord injury' or 'quadriplegia/tetraplegia' with 'quality of life', 'life satisfaction', 'social adjustment' or 'psychological adaptation'. This search was augmented through papers identified in reference lists. Articles were excluded if they were designed solely to examine the impact of a specific intervention upon QOL; or if they examined satisfaction with various life domains without explicitly linking these to perceptions of QOL. Papers were also accessed that addressed the philosophical and epistemological issues involved in QOL conceptions and assessment. RESULTS: Review of the literature highlights the philosophical and methodological difficulties associated with the quantitative measurement of a qualitative experience; and with the assessment of life domains chosen by researchers. Analysis of QOL research undertaken among people with all levels of SCI demonstrates that dissatisfaction with life following injury arises primarily from social disadvantage. However, little research has been conducted specifically to ascertain perceptions of QOL among people with high SCI. CONCLUSIONS: Ensuring the relevance of future research into QOL following high SCI requires qualitative methodology and mixed methods. Further research is needed to determine how rehabilitation professionals can act on the findings of their QOL assessments and enhance the QOL experienced by people with spinal cord injury in the context of their environments. SPONSORSHIP: The early phase of this study was supported by: University of British Columbia Graduate Fellowship; Rick Hansen Man in Motion Foundation (studentship); Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada: doctoral fellowship.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1998

A critique of studies exploring the experiences and needs of parents of children admitted to paediatric intensive care units.

This paper is based on a critique of studies exploring the experiences and needs of parents whose children are admitted to paediatric intensive care units (PICU). The majority of studies have been conducted in North America and attempt to quantify parental feelings and experiences. Few qualitative studies have been published. Major theoretical concerns are developed in relation to the validity of quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection which currently serve to inform nursing practice. While methodological issues abound, consistency across studies supports the importance of certain features of parents' experiences, such as being with their child and role conflict. None of the literature reviewed considered the specific needs of different ethnic and cultural groups, siblings, grandparents or the family as a unit. The views of fathers are also under-represented. Recommendations are made for future well-designed qualitative studies to be undertaken by experienced qualitative researchers from a holistic insider family perspective.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2001

A critique of cultural education in nursing.

UNLABELLED: AIM(S) OF THE PAPER: This paper critiques cultural education in nursing. Current approaches to cultural education, embedded in traditional anthropology, are obsolete and fail to acknowledge the global environment that impacts even the most remote and isolated cultures. The argument is made that new, transformative approaches to cultural education are needed. BACKGROUND: Cultural awareness of the other is the foundation of existing strategies to teach cultural education. Students are encouraged to learn about each culture, often described as a monolith, by learning the unique characteristics of a group with a common race, ethnicity, or other distinguishing feature. Despite the increased emphasis on cultural education in nursing worldwide, culturally based problems persist. Nurse and health care researchers continue to report disparities in health, an unequal distribution of health care, and the lack of knowledge and sensitivity when caring for clients from another culture. DISCUSSION: Globalization contributes to differences within cultures that may equal or exceed differences between cultures. Evidence is presented that current nursing education emphasizes cultural distinctions that do not persist in the postmodern world. Problems adherent to the continued use of cultural monoliths as the foundation of cultural education are discussed and expanded perspectives on culture and cultural education are presented. CONCLUSION: The principles of transformative education are offered as an alternative to the current approaches to cultural education. Students are encouraged to be vulnerable to personal change when interacting with people from other cultures because transformative education is as much about personal growth as it is about enhanced care of others. This modernized approach to cultural education transcends the standard adaptation of care from the dominant culture of the health care delivery system to the culture of the client/patient.

Anthropology, Cultural↗
PubMed2003

A critique of the Diagnostic Criteria for Psychiatric Disorders for Use with Adults with Learning Disabilities/Mental Retardation (DC-LD) chapter on non-affective psychotic disorders.

BACKGROUND: There has been a longstanding interest in the study of psychotic disorders in adults with intellectual disability. The DC-LD chapter for non-affective psychotic disorders provides operationalised criteria for use with this population. METHODS: A detailed, structured review of the literature was carried out. Relevant papers were reviewed to provide a framework for a critique of the DC-LD criteria. RESULTS: Most of the research literature focuses on psychotic disorders in adults with mild intellectural disability and suggests that this group experience clinical symptoms similar to those experienced by adults with average abilities. Although the DC-LD criteria for non-affective psychotic disorders are derived from the ICD-10 equivalent categories they are broader than other classification systems, which may affect their reliability, validity and utility. CONCLUSIONS: At this stage, it is important that the DC-LD criteria are used alongside established systems to gather information about their use for clinical and research purposes.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Is depression normal in human beings? A critique of the evolutionary perspective.

To the evolutionary biologist human beings at every stage of their development represent 'compromises' in their continual adaptation to their changing environments. Using a neo-Darwinian perspective, evolutionary psychiatrists such as Randolph Nesse (Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Michigan) argue that while natural selection does not shape disease itself, it does shape human traits and therefore vulnerability to disease. Accordingly, for him, depression is a human emotion which may represent a surviving positive response and is therefore not always pathological. This critique examines Nesse's principal arguments and reveals a number of weaknesses in those arguments. The article concludes with a review of the therapeutic and preventive implications of his evolutionary perspective on depressive states as well as some implications for mental health nurses.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Hospital fall risk assessment tools: a critique of the literature.

There are numerous fall risk assessment tools developed for use by nurses in hospitals; however, few of them have established validity and reliability. This article will examine the current state of knowledge in regard to fall risk assessment tools through review and critique of the literature on the topic. Recommendations for future research on fall risk assessment tools will be made and a conceptual framework detailing the relationship between the variables involved in assessing the accuracy of fall risk assessment tools will be presented.

Accidental Falls↗
PubMed2003

'Better than numbers...' A gentle critique of evidence-based medicine.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) has achieved cult status in the last 10 years or so. It is an altogether admirable movement in medicine, capable of a great deal of good. Its privileged status, however, has prevented critics from being heard, and there are problems with EBM. Eight features need further discussion if EBM is not to be discredited and superseded. They are its reductionism; its unwitting paternalism; its privileging of restricted kinds of evidence; its dependence on the questionable concept of equipoise; the instability of the 'truths' it produces; its capacity to eliminate individuals in favour of categories; its historical arrogance; and its contempt for the wisdom and integrity of our predecessors. Evidence-based medicine is here to stay; for the moment, at least. It is sufficiently well established to withstand critique. It needs criticism if it is to survive and flourish.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗
PubMed2002

Critiquing bachelor candidates' theses: are the criteria useful?

Nursing education programmes should be at an academic level and connected to research. In Sweden, empirical studies are generally required in order to obtain a Bachelor's degree; hence, in some cases, these studies are replaced by a literature review. A study was conducted using 11 criteria. Thirteen theses produced in a department of nursing science were examined, elaborated and reproduced by reviewing international and national literature. Thereafter, the criteria themselves were scrutinized. Principal findings when critiquing the theses were that in eight theses the purpose was dearly identified and well defined in relation to the study accomplished; in three theses the purpose was indistinct and vague; and in two the definitions and research questions were lacking. The topic was relevant for the area of nursing in all theses. General problems identified were poor spelling and grammar, and unsatisfactory thesis structure. This article discusses whether criteria are useful when examining the Bachelor candidates' theses. The authors report that the criteria seemed to be useful, giving some guidance for scrutinizing theses and facilitating correspondence. Criteria could be appropriate guidelines for using to increase the quality of the theses as well as the quality of nursing.

Academic Dissertations as Topic↗
PubMed2000

Women's request for a cesarean section: a critique of the literature.

BACKGROUND: The consistently high cesarean section rate in most developed Western countries has been attributed in part to maternal request. This controversial view demands critical analysis. This paper provides a critique of published research relating to women's request for cesarean delivery. METHOD: A search of the major databases was undertaken using the search term "cesarean section" with "maternal request," "decision-making," "patient-participation," "decision-making-patient," "patient-satisfaction," "patient-preference," and "maternal-choice." Ten research articles examining women's preferred mode of birth were retrieved, nine of which focused on women's preference for cesarean delivery. RESULTS: The methodology of some studies may result in overreporting women's request for a cesarean delivery. The role of the woman's caregiver in the generation, collection, and entry of data, and the occurrence of post hoc rationalization, recall bias, and women's tendency to be less critical of their care immediately after birth are possible areas of concern. Due consideration is rarely given to the influence of obstetric risk for women who may be requesting a cesarean section or to the information women used in making their decision. Women's perceptions of their involvement in decision-making regarding cesarean section are used to draw conclusions regarding women's request. CONCLUSIONS: Few women request a cesarean section in the absence of current or previous obstetric complications. The focus on women's request for cesarean section may divert attention away from physician-led influences on the continuing high cesarean section rates.

Cesarean Section↗
PubMed2002

A critique of research measures used to assess inappropriate psychoactive drug use in older adults.

An overview and critique of research measures of inappropriate psychoactive drug use in the treatment of frail older adults is presented. These measures are compared on the basis of six key criteria for the complex determination of inappropriate psychoactive drug use as a research variable. These six instruments/standards are examined also for their advantages and disadvantages as research tools. Based on this review and related literature, recommendations are made that future studies of inappropriate psychoactive drug use include expert clinician assessment, measures of target symptoms and functional status, physiological indicators wherever possible, and drug and dosage classifications according to interdisciplinary consensus-based criteria.

Aged↗