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PubMed2005

Don't worry, be happy? Neuroticism, trait-consistent affect regulation, and performance.

People regulate their affect either to feel good or to achieve instrumental success. The present experiments show that when driven by performance goals, people can be motivated to experience unpleasant affect when it is trait-consistent, because of its instrumental benefits (e.g., M. Tamir & M. D. Robinson, 2004). In 4 studies, individuals high in neuroticism were more likely than those low in neuroticism to choose to increase their level of worry, as indicated by self-reported preferences (Study 1) and by behavioral choices in experimental settings (Studies 2-4). As predicted, such preferences were evident when expecting to perform demanding tasks but not when expecting an undemanding task (Study 2). Study 4 suggests that such preferences for short-term unpleasant affect may be beneficial to performance.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

Decoding near-threshold perception of fear from distributed single-trial brain activation.

Instead of contrasting functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals associated with 2 conditions, as customarily done in neuroimaging, we reversed the direction of analysis and probed whether brain signals could be used to "predict" perceptual states. We probed the neural correlates of perceptual decisions by "decoding" brain states during near-threshold fear detection. Decoding was attempted by using support vector machines and other related techniques. Although previous decoding studies have employed relatively "blocked" data, our objective was to probe how the "moment-to-moment" fluctuation in fMRI signals across a population of voxels reflected the participant's perceptual decision. Accuracy increased from when 1 region was considered (approximately 64%) to when 10 regions were used (approximately 78%). When the best classifications per subject were averaged, accuracy levels ranged between 74% and 86% correct. An information theoretic analysis revealed that the information carried by pairs of regions reliably exceeded the sum of the information carried by individual regions, suggesting that information was combined "synergistically" across regions. Our results indicate that the representation of behavioral choice is "distributed" across several brain regions. Such distributed encoding may help prepare the organism to appropriately handle emotional stimuli and regulate the associated emotional response upon the conscious decision that a fearful face is present. In addition, the results show that challenging brain states can be decoded with high accuracy even when "single-trial" data are employed and suggest that multivariate analysis strategies have considerable potential in helping to elucidate the neural correlates of visual awareness and the encoding of perceptual decisions.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Delay discounting in college cigarette chippers.

Individuals who smoke cigarettes regularly but do not become dependent on them provide a unique opportunity for studying the factors that inhibit drug dependence. Previous research on this population, sometimes referred to as 'cigarette chippers', showed that they did not differ from regular smokers in terms of smoking topography (e.g. puff number and duration) and circulating nicotine levels, but that they did show more self-control according to answers on a questionnaire. We evaluated the generality of this finding using a behavioral choice procedure. The participants were undergraduate students (n=71), who were regular smokers, chippers, or nonsmokers. In the choice procedure, one option was a smaller but sooner amount of money, and the other option was a larger but delayed amount of money. Under these conditions, preference for the sooner smaller amount implies that the later larger monetary amounts were discounted. It is widely assumed that the rate of discounting provides an operational definition of impulsivity. In one version of the procedure, the money was hypothetical. In a second version, each choice had a chance of producing an actual monetary outcome. When there was an actual monetary outcome, regular smokers were more likely to choose the sooner but smaller monetary option than chippers and nonsmokers. For all participants, the rate of discounting decreased as the magnitude of the monetary outcomes increased, and for smokers and chippers the differences in discount rates in the two versions of the delayed outcome procedure were the same. These findings are consistent with the view that chippers are less impulsive than smokers. Quantitative aspects of these findings led to the hypothesis that discount rates decrease as a negative power function of the monetary value of the options. This result establishes an analogy between delay discounting experiments and psychophysical experiments. Results from two earlier studies support the analogy.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Relaxation-based multichannel signal combination (RELAX-MUSIC) for ROC analysis of percept-related neuronal activity.

In this letter, we consider how to combine neuronal signals from multiple electrodes to optimally predict behavioral choices from observed neural activity. The predictability is often quantified by the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, also called choice probability (CP) in neurophysiology. We exploit a distribution-free relaxation based multichannel signal combination (RELAX-MUSIC) approach that requires only simple pairwise combination and recursive implementation for optimizing the area under the ROC curve. A permutation test is employed to assess the statistical significance of the derived CP. We demonstrate that the RELAX-MUSIC approach outperforms the commonly used response pooling and Fisher linear discriminant (FLD) methods. The excellent performances of the RELAX-MUSIC approach for predicting perceptual decisions from neural activity are demonstrated via examples using simulated and experimental data.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1969

Linguistic structure and transposition.

Transfer of a learned discrimination along the size dimension was studied in groups of American and African tribal children. The language spoken by the African children contains an asymmetry in the expression of size comparisons that is not present in English. Contrary to theories of linguistic mediation of choice behavior, transfer choices were not related to the differing linguistic patterns; however, initial choices and post-test descriptions of choices were so related.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Correlation between speed perception and neural activity in the middle temporal visual area.

We conducted electrophysiological recording and microstimulation experiments to test the hypothesis that the middle temporal visual area (MT) plays a direct role in perception of the speed of moving visual stimuli. We trained rhesus monkeys on a speed discrimination task in which monkeys chose the faster speed of two moving random dot patterns presented simultaneously in spatially segregated apertures. In electrophysiological experiments, we analyzed the activity of speed-tuned MT neurons and multiunit clusters during the discrimination task. Neural activity was correlated with the monkeys' behavioral choices on a trial-to-trial basis (choice probability), and the correlation was predicted by the speed-tuning properties of each unit. In microstimulation experiments, we activated clusters of MT neurons with homogeneous speed-tuning properties during the same speed discrimination task. In one monkey, microstimulation biased speed judgments toward the preferred speed of the stimulated neurons. Together, evidence from these two experiments suggests that MT neurons play a direct role in the perception of visual speed. Comparison of psychometric and neurometric thresholds revealed that single and multineuronal signals were, on average, considerably less sensitive than were the monkeys perceptually, suggesting that signals must be pooled across neurons to account for performance.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1997

Behavioral Modes Arise From a Random Process in the Nudibranch Melibe.

Stochastic analysis was applied to observations of spontaneous behavior in the carnivorous mollusc Melibe leonina. Six behaviors were denned that could be easily recognized on inspection and it was found that transitions between each of these behaviors could be fully described by a first-order random process without memory of past behavioral choices. The behaviors are organized by frequency of transition into two modes, a feeding mode and a resting mode. Transitions within modes are more likely than transitions between modes, and the feeding and resting modes are linked by a preferred pair of behavioral transitions. The amount of time spent in the feeding mode is positively correlated with body size, but the average length of a feeding episode is independent of size. This suggests that body size regulates the probability of entry into feeding behavior but does not influence the basic pattern of feeding. In the presence of food the animals express nearly continuous feeding behavior, suggesting that food reduces the probability of exiting the feeding mode. This model of spontaneous behavior in Melibe is used to form hypotheses amenable to further exploration through neurophysiological experiments.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Leading us not unto temptation: momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation.

The present research explored the nature of automatic associations formed between short-term motives (temptations) and the overriding goals with which they interfere. Five experimental studies, encompassing several self-regulatory domains, found that temptations tend to activate such higher priority goals, whereas the latter tend to inhibit the temptations. These activation patterns occurred outside of participants' conscious awareness and did not appear to tax their mental resources. Moreover, they varied as a function of subjective goal importance and were more pronounced for successful versus unsuccessful self-regulators in a given domain. Finally, priming by temptation stimuli was found not only to influence the activation of overriding goals but also to affect goal-congruent behavioral choices.

Choice Behavior↗
PubMed2003

Effects of nicotine deprivation on craving response covariation in smokers.

Most models of craving propose that when cravings are strong, diverse responses--thought to index an underlying craving state--covary. Previous studies provided weak support for this hypothesis. The authors tested whether nicotine deprivation affects degree of covariation across multiple measures related to craving. Heavy and light smokers (N = 127) were exposed to smoking cues while either nicotine deprived or nondeprived. Measures included urge ratings, affective valence, a behavioral choice task assessing perceived reinforcement value of smoking, and smoking-related judgment tasks. Results indicated higher correlations in the nicotine-deprived than in nondeprived group. The measures principally responsible for this effect loaded onto a single common Craving factor for nicotine-deprived but not nondeprived smokers. These findings suggest that, under certain conditions, measures of craving-related processes covary.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Walk and Talk: an intervention for behaviorally challenged youths.

This qualitative research explored the question: Do preadolescent and adolescent youths with behavioral challenges benefit from a multimodal intervention of walking outdoors while engaging in counseling? The objective of the Walk and Talk intervention is to help the youth feel better, explore alternative behavioral choices, and learn new coping strategies and life skills by engaging in a counseling process that includes the benefits of mild aerobic exercise, and that nurtures a connection to the outdoors. The intervention utilizes a strong therapeutic alliance based on the Rogerian technique of unconditional positive regard, which is grounded and guided by the principles of attachment theory. For eight weeks, eight students (aged 9 to 13 years) from a middle school in Alberta, Canada, participated weekly in the Walk and Talk intervention. Students' self-reports indicated that they benefited from the intervention. Research triangulation with involved adults supported findings that indicated the students were making prosocial choices in behavior, and were experiencing more feelings of self-efficacy and well-being. Limitations, new research directions, and subsequent longitudinal research possibilities are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Tracking of food choices across the transition to motherhood.

OBJECTIVE: This research addresses 2 questions: What are the patterns in selected food choice behaviors across the transition to motherhood? and Do the patterns vary by mothers' social location, particularly parity, family income, and breast-feeding behavior? DESIGN: A prospective cohort study with healthy, adult women followed from midpregnancy until 2 years postpartum. Data were collected through mailed questionnaires for prepregnancy and pregnancy, at 6 months, at 1 and 2 years postpartum, and through an audit of the women's medical records. SETTING: A hospital and primary care clinic system serving a 10-county area of rural upstate New York. PARTICIPANTS: 360 women of the 622 in the cohort provided data for all time points. VARIABLES MEASURED: Three food choice behaviors served as categorical dependent variables at each of the 5 time points: drinking > or = 2 cups of milk per day, consuming > or = 3 servings of fruits and vegetables per day, and eating breakfast every day. Three social location variables were used as independent variables for the second research question: parity (nulliparous vs primi- and multiparous), family income (low [< or = 185% of federal poverty level] vs higher), and breast-feeding (> or = 1 year vs less). ANALYSIS: McNemar's test was used to compare proportions of women at or above the cutoff value for each food choice behavior across time, and the Fisher exact test was used to compare proportions between groups for each social location variable at each time point. P < or = .05 was considered significant. RESULTS: The proportion of women drinking 2 or more cups of milk per day at 2 years postpartum was not different from prepregnancy, but the proportions consuming 3 or more fruits and vegetables and eating breakfast every day were significantly higher at 2 years postpartum than prior to pregnancy. The pattern of change varied by categories within the social location variables and differed by food choice behavior. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The transition to motherhood was associated with a positive change in some food choice behaviors. Women making this transition for the first time showed the most consistent positive changes and should be a target audience for nutrition education.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The role of the amygdala in signaling prospective outcome of choice.

Can brain activity reveal a covert choice? Making a choice often evokes distinct emotions that accompany decision processes. Amygdala has been implicated in choice behavior that is guided by a prospective negative outcome. However, its specific involvement in emotional versus cognitive processing of choice behavior has been a subject of controversy. In this study, the human amygdala was monitored by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while subjects were playing in a naturalistic choice paradigm against the experimenter. In order to win, players had to occasionally choose to bluff their opponent, risk "getting caught," and suffer a loss. A critical period, when choice has been made but outcome was still unknown, activated the amygdala preferentially following the choice that entailed risk of loss. Thus, the response of the amygdala differentiated between subject's covert choice of either playing fair or foul. These results support a role of the amygdala in choice behavior, both in the appraisal of inherent value of choice and the signaling of prospective negative outcomes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Students' motivations for data handling choices and behaviors: their explanations of performance.

Cries for increased accountability through additional assessment are heard throughout the educational arena. However, as demonstrated in this study, to make a valid assessment of teaching and learning effectiveness, educators must determine not only what students do, but also why they do it, as the latter significantly affects the former. This study describes and analyzes 14- to 16-year-old students' explanations for their choices and performances during science data handling tasks. The study draws heavily on case-study methods for the purpose of seeking an in-depth understanding of classroom processes in an English comprehensive school. During semistructured scheduled and impromptu interviews, students were asked to describe, explain, and justify the work they did with data during their science classes. These student explanations fall within six categories, labeled 1) implementing correct procedures, 2) following instructions, 3) earning marks, 4) doing what is easy, 5) acting automatically, and 6) working within limits. Each category is associated with distinct outcomes for learning and assessment, with some motivations resulting in inflated performances while others mean that learning was underrepresented. These findings illuminate the complexity of student academic choices and behaviors as mediated by an array of motivations, casting doubt on the current understanding of student performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

The interplay between behavior and morphology in the evolutionary dynamics of resource specialization.

We analyze the consequences of diet choice behavior for the evolutionary dynamics of foraging traits by means of a mathematical model. The model is characterized by the following features. Consumers feed on two different substitutable resources that are distributed in a fine-grained manner. On encounter with a resource item, consumers decide whether to attack it so as to maximize their energy intake. Simultaneously, evolutionary change occurs in morphological traits involved in the foraging process. The assumption here is that evolution is constrained by a trade-off in the consumer's ability to forage on the alternative resources. The model predicts that flexible diet choice behavior can guide the direction of evolutionary change and mediate coexistence of different consumer types. Such polymorphisms can evolve from a monomorphic population at evolutionary branching points and also at points where a small genetic change in a trait can provoke a sharp instantaneous and nongenetic change in choice behavior. In the case of weak trade-offs, the evolutionary dynamics of a dimorphic consumer population can lead to alternative evolutionarily stable communities. The robustness of these predictions is checked with individual-based simulations and by relaxing the assumption of optimally foraging consumers.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Female mate choice as a condition-dependent life-history trait.

The acquisition of resources is an important determinant of patterns of variation in and covariation among traits that are costly to produce and are dependent on condition for their expression. However, the extent to which variation in female mate choice behavior is condition dependent, and how this is related to other life-history traits, remains largely unknown. We manipulated the acquisition of dietary protein in the black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus, and measured the effects of this on several important life-history traits and on female mate choice behavior. Females reared on a high-protein diet developed faster, were heavier at eclosion, and lived longer than females reared on a low-protein diet. Two lines of evidence suggest that female mate choice behavior in T. commodus is condition dependent. First, females reared on the high-protein diet were more sexually responsive and expressed stronger linear and quadratic preference functions for call rate and dominant frequency, respectively. Second, within treatments, females that developed faster were lighter, generally less sexually responsive, and, in the high-protein-diet treatment, expressed weaker preferences than slower-developing females. Collectively, our findings suggest an important role for resource acquisition in generating variation in mate choice behavior.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Lesions of orbitofrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala complex disrupt acquisition of odor-guided discriminations and reversals.

Recent work indicates that both orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the basolateral complex of the amygdala (ABL) are involved in processes by which cues are associated with predicted outcomes. To examine the respective roles of these structures in discrimination learning, rats with bilateral sham or neurotoxic lesions of either OFC or ABL were trained on a series of four 2-odor discrimination problems in a thirst-motivated go, no-go task. After acquisition of the series of odor problems, the rats were trained on serial reversals of the final odor problem. Performance on each problem was assessed by monitoring accuracy of choice behavior, and also by measuring latency to respond for fluid outcomes after odor sampling. During discrimination learning, rats in both lesioned groups had similar deficits, failing to show normal changes in response latency during learning, while at the same time exhibiting normal choice behavior relative to controls. Choice behavior was affected only during the reversal phase of training, in which OFC and ABL lesions produced distinctive deficits. Rats with ABL lesions were impaired on the first reversal (S1-/S2+), but were unimpaired at acquiring a reversal back to the original odor-outcome contigencies (S1+/S2-), whereas rats with OFC lesions were impaired on both types of reversals. These findings suggest that OFC and ABL serve partially overlapping roles in the use of incentive information that supports normal discrimination performance.

Amygdala↗