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PubMed2002

Investigation into the rejuvenation of spent electroless nickel baths by electrodialysis.

Electroless nickel plating generates substantially more waste than other metal-finishing processes due to the inherent limited bath life and the need for regular bath disposal. Electrodialysis can be used to regenerate electroless nickel baths, but poor membrane permselectivity, leading to high losses of valuable bath components, continues to be a weakness of the technology. This research has investigated improving electrodialysis permselectivity for removing contaminants (sodium, orthophosphite, and sulfate) in a spent electroless nickel bath while minimizing the losses of valuable bath ions (nickel, hypophosphite, and organic acids). Ion permselectivity was explored with respect to electrodialysis operating conditions, membrane type, and cell configuration. Excellent permselectivity for sodium over nickel was attained irrespective of operating condition, membrane, or cell configuration. Studies on the effects of four different operating conditions (current density, pH, flow rate, and temperature) on anion permselectivity revealed bath pH and current density to be critical operating parameters. The type of anion exchange membrane used had a crucial effect on selectivity; one membrane (Ionac MA-3475) was identified as having superior selectivity for bath contaminants particularly for sulfate. The improvements in electrodialysis permselectivity established by this research will decrease waste generation within the electroless nickel process and increase resource productivity by minimizing the loss of valuable plating chemicals.

Electroplating↗
PubMed1993

Nesting, dust bathing and perching by laying hens in cages: effects of design on behaviour and welfare.

1. Laying hens (192 ISA Brown medium hybrids) were housed from 18 to 72 weeks as groups of 4 in conventional or experimental cages. The main area of all cages provided 675 cm2/hen. All experimental cages had perches, dust baths and nest boxes, which were of three types: litter (L), artificial turf (A) or plastic rollaway (P). These facilities provided an additional 375 to 480 cm2/hen. The nest boxes and dust baths occupied either high or low positions. Behaviour, physical condition and production of the birds were regularly recorded. 2. Mortality was low (1.6% overall) and egg production very good in all treatments. The proportion of cracked and dirty eggs was slightly (but not significantly) higher in the experimental cages. In the experimental cages 90% of eggs were laid overall in the nest boxes and 3% in the dust baths. The proportion laid in the nest boxes was lower early in the laying cycle and increased with time, reaching 99% in A. 3. The facilities were heavily used. Birds spent about 25% of day time on the perches and 10-15% in or near the nest box and dust bath. At night, the majority of birds (90 to 94%) roosted on perches, but most of the remainder were on the lips of the nest box or dust bath, fouling the interiors. 4. Pre-laying behaviour was much more settled in the experimental cages (45 min spent in the eventual laying position) than in the conventional ones (20 min) and total duration varied from 68 min in A to 87 min in P. The number of nest entries varied from 3.0 (A and P) to 4.3 (L); disturbance to sitting birds was correspondingly greater in L. 5. Dust bathing in the experimental cages generally took place during the afternoon in a single bout of about 5 min duration, whereas in the conventional cages it was brief and fragmented (3 bouts of 10 s each). The dust bath was also used for foraging behaviour (pecking and scratching). The treatments with small dust baths (A and P) caused problems for the birds. 6. Feather, foot and claw damage all tended to be less in the experimental than in the conventional cages, though only in the last case was the difference significant. Keel bone depressions appeared to be associated with perches; they were present in 43% of hens in the experimental cages but only 4% in conventional cages.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animal Welfare↗
PubMed1997

Evaluation of PUVA bath phototoxicity.

Administration of 8-methoxypsoralen in a dilute bath water solution is an effective therapeutic alternative to its systemic application, avoiding systemic side effects. Although PUVA bath photochemotherapy is now widely used, standardized guidelines are not yet available. Therefore, the aim of our study was to determine the optimal time interval between 8-methoxypsoralen bath and UVA irradiation and the persistence of photosensitivity after PUVA bath treatment. In volunteers the highest photosensitivity was observed following UVA irradiation immediately after PUVA bath. A sharp increase of the minimal phototoxic dose could be demonstrated after only 1 h, indicating a rapid loss of 8-methoxypsoralen activity. Irradiation 2 h after 8-methoxypsoralen bath failed to induce any PUVA erythema. This indicates that the optimal time for UVA irradiation is immediately after the 8-methoxypsoralen bath. In contrast to systemic PUVA therapy, 2 h after PUVA bath therapy, the remaining phototoxicity is minimal, so that no stringent restrictions of the patient's behaviour are needed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

[Usefulness and necessity of unsynchronized photosolotherapy and bath-PUVA--two variants of balneophototherapy--in funded ambulatory health care].

The Standing Committee of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians and Sickness Funds is the legal body that makes decisions on reimbursement for health care services in the German ambulatory health care sector. In 1994 the committee declined the reimbursement of balneophototherapy. Balneophototherapy comprises a bath in a saline solution followed by ("non-synchronous") or simultaneous ("synchronous") UVB-irradiation. Photochemotherapy with bath-water delivery of psoralens combined with UVA light is also covered by the term balneophotherapy. The main indication for both procedures is serious psoriasis. Bath PUVA was also recommended for atopic dermatitis, pityriasis lichenoides, lichen ruber and mycosis fungoides. An effectiveness study sponsored by the sickness funds with rather poor methodological design and conduct was not able to show an unbiased effect of balneophototherapy despite inclusion of thousands of patients. On the contrary, a poor adherence of patients and doctors was documented, since 63% of patients suffering from psoriasis and treated with saline bath followed by UVB-irradiation stopped early or used additional therapies like cortisone or vitamin D3 derivatives. Only 43% of patients suffering from psoriasis and treated by bath PUVA did not stop the initial therapy and did not receive additional therapy (UVB, cortisone). In addition, the committee also conducted a thorough review of the literature, guidelines and status in other health care systems. Finally the two modifications of balneophototherapy were again declined from reimbursement in the German ambulatory health care sector. There were no controlled clinical trials showing efficacy of saline bath followed by UVB irradiation. Up to now bath PUVA was only evaluated in small equivalence trials which despite the fact that a drug was tested did not apply basic ICH standards (international conference on harmonisation) for equivalence trials. Additionally, the long-term cancer risk inherent to the application of psoralenes must be considered. Since the definition of "severe psoriasis" is not trivial a wide use of bath PUVA in ambulatory health care has to be based on the results of rigorously conducted clinical trials showing the effectiveness, safety and appropriateness in comparison to other treatment modalities. In reaction to the decision of of the committee two randomised controlled trials for the evaluation of the efficacy of balneophototherapy are planned.

Balneology↗
PubMed1984

[Bathing caps and germ shedding of human scalp hair].

With three groups of 30 test subjects each, having short, medium-long and long hair, as well as with a model test using a woman's wig it was possible to show that by wearing bathing caps the transfer of germs from the scalp hairs to the swimming-pool water can be reduced considerably, either by the isolation of the hairs from water when snugly fitting water-tight bathing caps are used, or by a reduction of the germ-carrying hair surface rinsed by the water, which is always the case, even when using water-permeable caps. The effect is the greater, the larger the natural hair surface is. The rule that persons with long hair of either sex should wear bathing caps proves again justified although the prescriptive use of bathing caps by "the long-haired" earlier was based on other concepts. The population of germs settling on bathing caps does not in the least reach the germ counts discharged into the swimming-pool water when no headgear is used. Nevertheless, the issue of disposable bathing caps, which is occasionally practised, must be welcomed for reasons of hygiene. The use of bathing caps not only diminishes the discharge of colony forming units (CFU) but also prevents the indicators of pollution, pathological and occasionally pathological germs being washed into the water from the hair. Reference is also made to the possibility that a snugly fitting bathing cap protects the swimmer against the risk of contracting otitis.

Bacteria↗
PubMed2006

Parental survey of beliefs and practices about bathing and water safety and their children: guidance for drowning prevention.

Drowning represents the second leading cause of unintentional injury death in children less than 19 years. In children less than 5 years, many of these deaths occur in bathtubs. The objective of this study was to describe parental beliefs and practices regarding bathing their children and general water safety to aid in improving anticipatory guidance for drowning prevention. We distributed a written survey about parental beliefs and practices concerning their children's bathing and general water safety to a convenience sample of caregivers. One hundred and thirty-six caregivers participated in the survey providing data for a total of 209 children. Overall, 85% of respondents reported using baby bathtubs, and 46% reported using bath seats when bathing their children. Some caregivers reported leaving a 6-12 months old child unsupervised in the tub, either alone or with a sibling. About half of respondents (52%) indicated that pediatricians discussed water safety and supervision with them, and 36% indicated discussing the proper use of bathing aids with their child's pediatrician. In conclusion, the survey found the majority of caregivers use bathing aids, and caregivers reported some risky behaviors of unsupervised bathing of infants, either alone or with siblings. Better water safety anticipatory guidance is needed for caregivers.

Accident Prevention↗
PubMed2005

Effect of foot bathing on distal-proximal skin temperature gradient in elders.

Increased distal (foot)-proximal (abdominal) skin temperature gradient (DPG) has been associated with better sleep initiation. Warm foot bath can affect distal skin temperature to change DPG. However, the optimum water temperature and duration necessary to raise DPG has not been established. This study explored the effects of 1-h foot bathing at two water temperatures of 40 and 41 degrees C, respectively, on DPG in Taiwanese elders (n=6, ages 60-73 years). Each subject's feet and legs were immersed in a temperature-controlled water tub to 20 cm above the ankles for 60 min in each of two water temperatures. Oral, abdominal, and foot temperatures were taken during (at 10-min intervals), and after (at 1-min intervals) foot bathing. DPG was calculated by subtracting abdominal temperature from foot temperature. Results showed the value of DPG was significantly increased in the 10th min bathing at both water temperatures and maintained above 0 degrees C. DPG gradually declined after bathing at both water temperatures. The value of DPG with 41 degrees C water was slightly higher than 40 degrees C. All subjects tolerated both bathing temperatures well for 1h. Both 40 and 41 degrees C foot bathing for 1h can increase the DPG and may be an effective way to affect whole body skin blood flow and trigger heat dissipation.

Aged↗
PubMed2004

Revision of the EU Bathing Water Directive: economic costs and benefits.

The European Union (EU) Bathing Water Directive of 1976 ([Commission of the European Communities, 1976. Council Directive of 8th December 1975 Concerning the Quality of Bathing Water (76/160/EEC). Official Journal of the European Community. 5th February 1976, L31/1, Brussels]) sets out standards for designated bathing waters which should be complied with by all member states. Intervening advances in pollution science, related technology and managerial expertise have allowed the European Commission to consider revision of EU environmental legislation where appropriate. As a result, a number of revisions to the 1976 Directive have been proposed ([Commission of the European Communities, 1994. Commission Proposal for a Council Directive Concerning the Quality of Bathing Water. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM (94) 36 Final, Brussels; Commission of the European Communities, 2000. Developing a New Bathing Water Policy, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM (2000) 860 Final, 21/12/200, Brussels; Commission of the European Communities, 2002. Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning the Quality of Bathing Water, COM (2002) 581 Final, 24/10/2002, Brussels]). This paper considers these revisions in terms of the economic costs and benefits associated with any change in policy. The focus is on the public's willingness to pay for a revised Directive and the consequent public health benefits afforded to individuals and society. These economic benefits are compared to the costs of implementing changes to bring bathing waters up to the required standard.

Bathing Beaches↗
PubMed1985

Trimethylpsoralen bath plus ultraviolet A combined with oral retinoid (etretinate) in the treatment of severe psoriasis.

Twenty five patients with severe and extensive psoriasis were treated with trimethylpsoralen (trioxsalen) bath plus ultraviolet A (bath PUVA) combined with oral retinoid, etretinate (Ro 10-9359). Etretinate was started (1 mg/kg/day) 2 weeks prior to starting the bath PUVA treatment daily. Psoriasis cleared with fifteen treatments in 96% of patients with a mean total UVA dose of 3.9 joules/cm2. The control group of nine patients received only bath PUVA without retinoid, and eight of them cleared with nineteen treatments and with a mean UVA dose of 7.2 joules/cm2. In addition, three psoriatic patients previously resistant to bath PUVA treatment were given etretinate (1 mg/kg/day), and they cleared in 4 to 8 weeks after starting etretinate with a UVA dose of 37-144 joules/cm2. In the maintenance therapy after the combination therapy of twenty-four patients, the results of treatment were good or excellent in fourteen of fifteen patients (93%) getting only bath PUVA one to two times a week and in four of nine patients (44%) getting etretinate (25-50 mg daily) in a mean follow-up time of 10 weeks. These results show the benefits of the combination of trimethylpsoralen bath PUVA with an oral retinoid, etretinate, in the treatment of severe and extensive psoriasis.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1986

PUVA therapy for psoriasis: comparison of oral and bath-water delivery of 8-methoxypsoralen.

A direct clinical comparison has been made of the efficacy of oral 8-methoxypsoralen with bath-water delivery of 8-methoxypsoralen during psoralen ultraviolet A (PUVA) phototherapy for a group of forty patients with stable plaque-type psoriasis vulgaris. The 8-methoxypsoralen concentration was 3.7 mg/liter in the bath water. The efficacy of these treatments was assessed by their ability to improve or clear the psoriasis. The skin of eight of the twenty patients with oral psoralen cleared, and another eight showed good improvement. Of the twenty patients who received 8-methoxypsoralen in bath water, eight patients had clearing of the skin, whereas nine patients had good improvement during the initial 8-week treatment period. Administration of 8-methoxypsoralen in bath water required much lower ultraviolet A irradiance to achieve maximum improvement. There were no systemic side effects in the patients treated by bath-water delivery; however, some patients did develop phototoxic erythema. Minimal phototoxic doses were also studied in patients and in volunteers using both routes of psoralen delivery. The minimal phototoxic dose threshold after psoralen bath delivery gradually declined over five treatments from 5.3 +/- 0.6 joules/cm2 to 2.8 +/- 0.3 joules/cm2, suggesting an accumulation of psoralen in the skin with this method of drug delivery. Bath-water delivery of 8-methoxypsoralen was therefore found to be as effective as oral administration of 8-methoxypsoralen and yet required smaller amounts of ultraviolet A radiation and yielded fewer side effects. It would thus seem to be confirmed as a useful alternative means of 8-methoxypsoralen administration in PUVA therapy.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1998

Kinetics of photosensitivity in bath-PUVA photochemotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Bath-PUVA is used to treat a variety of dermatoses. However, the kinetics of 8-methoxypsoralen during treatment are not completely clarified. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the intensity of the phototoxic response and the persistence of phototoxicity after bath-PUVA. METHODS: Twelve volunteers were exposed to UVA doses ranging from 0.5 to 40 J/cm2 from 10 to 240 minutes after bath-PUVA treatment. The resulting phototoxic response of the skin was determined. RESULTS: Irradiation 10 minutes after the psoralen bath led to the lowest assessed minimal phototoxic dose (MPD) of 1.42 J/cm2 (mean, SD +/- 0.29). Thereafter, the MPD increased significantly and sharply every hour. At 4 hours after the psoralen bath, UVA doses up to 40 J/cm2 failed to induce any phototoxic erythema (MPD). CONCLUSION: For optimal effects, UVA irradiation has to be administered immediately after the psoralen bath; no restrictive behavior is necessary after bath-PUVA treatment.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Kinetics of phototoxicity in trioxysalen bath psoralen plus ultraviolet A photochemotherapy.

A trioxysalen bath is a safe alternative to systemic 8-methoxypsoralen in long-term psoralen plus ultraviolet A (PUVA) treatment. The kinetics of its main side-effect, the strong phototoxicity, has not been thoroughly studied. This study determined the degree and persistence of phototoxicity after a single 10 min bath at a trioxysalen concentration of 0.33 mg/l. The buttock skin of 16 healthy volunteers was irradiated with UVA 10 min, and 1, 3, 9 and 24h after the bath. The minimal phototoxic dose (MPD) was assessed 48, 72 and 96h after the bath. In general, the 96 h reading showed the lowest values of MPD; for example, a median of 0.14 J/cm2 (95% confidence interval 0.10-0.14 J/cm2) at sites irradiated 10 min after the bath. The values increased progressively with later irradiation, and the maximum dose applied, 18.32 J/cm2, failed to produce any redness when irradiation was given 24 h after the bath. Substantial phototoxicity persists up to at least 9h after the trioxysalen bath, making it wise for patients to avoid sunshine for at least the rest of the day.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Effect of rice starch as a bath additive on the barrier function of healthy but SLS-damaged skin and skin of atopic patients.

Rice starch added to bath water was studied for its possible beneficial effects on impaired barrier function as evaluated by transepidermal water loss measurements. The forearm skin of healthy volunteers was irritated by sodium lauryl sulphate. Exposure to rice-starch-containing bath water--twice daily for 15 min--led to a 20% improvement on the healing capacity of damaged skin. The beneficial effect was also observed for a rice-starch-containing lipid-free bath formulation, and an oil-in-water bath lotion enriched with evening primrose oil. Skin barrier function in patients with atopic dermatitis also improved after the addition of starch powder to bath water. Rice starch in powder or formulated in a bath product can therefore be recommended as a skin repair bathing additive for barrier damaged skin, particularly in the case of atopic dermatitis patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Bathing disability and the risk of long-term admission to a nursing home.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of disability in bathing and the likelihood of a long-term nursing home admission increase substantially with age. We performed a prospective study to determine whether the occurrence of persistent disability in bathing is associated with the risk of a long-term nursing home admission, independent of potential confounders, including persistent disability in other essential activities of daily living. METHODS: We studied 754 community-living persons, 70 years old or older, who were nondisabled in four essential activities of daily living. Participants were followed with monthly telephone interviews for a median of 75 months to determine the occurrence of persistent (i.e., present for at least 2 consecutive months) disability in bathing and the time to the first long-term nursing home admission, defined as longer than 3 months. RESULTS: One hundred thirteen (15.0%) participants had a long-term nursing home admission. At least one episode of persistent bathing disability occurred among 59 (52.2%) participants with a long-term nursing home admission and 210 (32.8%) without a long-term admission (p <.001). In a proportional hazards model that was fully adjusted for potential confounders, the occurrence of persistent bathing disability increased the risk of a long-term nursing home admission by 77% (hazard ratio 1.77, 95% confidence interval 1.05 to 2.98), but had no effect on the risk of a short-term nursing home admission (hazard ratio 0.87, 95% confidence interval 0.51 to 1.49). CONCLUSIONS: Among community-living older persons, the occurrence of persistent disability in bathing is independently associated with the risk of a long-term nursing home admission, but has no effect on short-term admissions. Interventions directed at the prevention and remediation of bathing disability have the potential to reduce the burden and expense of long-term care services.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1992

Warm tub bath after spontaneous rupture of the membranes.

Increasing numbers of pregnant women take a warm bath during labor. Yet few evaluations have addressed benefits claimed and possible risks of this practice. Using retrospective data from a continuing trial at a birth center in Stockholm, we compared 89 women who took a warm bath after spontaneous rupture of the membranes at term with 89 women who had the same interval from spontaneous membrane rupture to delivery and who did not bathe. No statistical difference was observed between the groups with respect to infections, asphyxia or respiratory problems in the newborn infant, or maternal signs of amnionitis. However, a tendency toward more complications was observed in the bathing group. Babies born more than 24 hours after rupture of membranes had significantly lower Apgar scores at 5 minutes in the bathing group than in the control group. As a result of our review of the sparse literature on this practice and the data from this study, we have modified the bathing policy at the birth center from a rather enthusiastic to a more cautious approach. Recommendations about the use of a warm bath in labor will require further investigation, such as randomized trials with large numbers of subjects.

Apgar Score↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A comparison of cold and warm sitz baths for relief of postpartum perineal pain.

The effect of cold sitz baths for relieving perineal pain in the postpartum period after an episiotomy was evaluated. Forty patients took both cold and warm sitz baths with random assignment of the initial bath. Patients rated the degree of perineal pain before and after each sitz bath and at half-hour and one-hour intervals after each bath. A pain scale using 0-5, 0 representing no pain and 5 representing extreme pain, was used. Analysis of pain scale scores using a two-way analysis of variance with replications showed that cold sitz baths were significantly more effective in relieving perineal pain. The greatest amount of pain relief was experienced immediately after the cold sitz baths.

Baths↗
PubMed2005

The impact of newborn bathing on the prevalence of neonatal hypothermia in Uganda: a randomized, controlled trial.

AIM: To elucidate the impact of bathing on the prevalence of hypothermia among newborn babies exposed to the skin-to-skin (STS) care technique before and after bathing. METHODS: Non-asphyxiated newborns after vaginal delivery (n = 249) in a Ugandan referral hospital were consecutively enrolled and randomized either to bathing at 60 min postpartum (n = 126) or no bathing (n = 123). All mothers practised skin-to-skin care of their newborns. Four rectal and tympanic registrations of newborn temperatures were carried out in both groups directly after drying at birth, and at 60, 70 and 90 min postpartum. RESULTS: Bathing of newborns in the first hour after delivery resulted in a significantly increased prevalence of hypothermia, defined as temperature <36.5 degrees C, at 70 and at 90 min postpartum despite the use of warmed water and the application of the STS method. There was no neonatal mortality. Aside from the bathing procedure, no background factor potentially predisposing the newborns to hypothermia was identified. CONCLUSION: Bathing newborn babies shortly after birth increased the risk of hypothermia despite the use of warm water and STS care for thermal protection of the newborn.

Baths↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of less frequent bathing on premature infant skin.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of less frequent bathing on skin flora of premature infants. DESIGN: Randomized clinical trial comparing the impact of every other day bathing to every 4th day bathing on skin flora type and colony count. SETTING: University of California, San Francisco, Medical Center Level IV neonatal intensive-care unit. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-three premature infants less than 37 weeks gestational age, 14 days or older, and receiving a bath. INTERVENTION: Premature infants were randomized to either every other day bathing (control group, n = 28) or every 4th day bathing (intervention group, n = 25). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Skin flora type and colony count obtained weekly. RESULTS: Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to test the main effect of group, time, and Group x Time interaction. These factors were not statistically significant; group F(1,21) = 1.842, p = .189; time F(3,63) = 1.359, p = .263; Group x Time interaction F(3,63) = 0.753, p = .525. None of the infants developed an infection as a result of participating in the study protocol. CONCLUSION: Every 4th day bathing of premature infants appears to be safe.

Baths↗