PubMed · 7311017
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T Matuhasi. 1981. [Antitoxin preparations].. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7311017/
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Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements found in the majority of prokaryotes. They encode toxin proteins that interfere with vital cellular functions and are counteracted by antitoxins. Dependent on the chemical nature of the antitoxins (protein or RNA) and how they control the activity of the toxin, TA systems are currently divided into six different types. Genes comprising the TA types I, II and III have been identified in Staphylococcus aureus. MazF, the toxin of the mazEF locus is a sequence-specific RNase that cleaves a number of transcripts, including those encoding pathogenicity factors. Two yefM-yoeB paralogs represent two independent, but auto-regulated TA systems that give rise to ribosome-dependent RNases. In addition, omega/epsilon/zeta constitutes a tripartite TA system that supposedly plays a role in the stabilization of resistance factors. The SprA1/SprA1AS and SprF1/SprG1 systems are post-transcriptionally regulated by RNA antitoxins and encode small membrane damaging proteins. TA systems controlled by interaction between toxin protein and antitoxin RNA have been identified in S. aureus in silico, but not yet experimentally proven. A closer inspection of possible links between TA systems and S. aureus pathophysiology will reveal, if these genetic loci may represent druggable targets. The modification of a staphylococcal TA toxin to a cyclopeptide antibiotic highlights the potential of TA systems as rather untapped sources of drug discovery.
The proteins Kid and Kis are the toxin and antitoxin, respectively, encoded by the parD operon of Escherichia coli plasmid R1. Kis prevents the inhibition of E. coli cell growth caused by the RNA cleavage activity of Kid. Overproduction of MazE, the chromosome-encoded homologue of Kis, has been demonstrated to neutralize Kid toxicity to a certain extent in the absence of native Kis. Here, we show that a high structural similarity exists between these antitoxins, using NMR spectroscopy. We report about the interactions between Kid and Kis that are responsible for neutralization of Kid toxicity and enhance autoregulation of parD transcription. Native macromolecular mass spectrometry data demonstrate that Kid and Kis form multiple complexes. At Kis:Kid ratios equal to or exceeding 1:1, as found in vivo in a plasmid-containing cell, various complexes are present, ranging from Kid(2)-Kis(2) tetramer up to Kis(2)-Kid(2)-Kis(2)-Kid(2)-Kis(2) decamer. When Kid is in excess of Kis, corresponding to an in vivo situation immediately after loss of the plasmid, the Kid(2)-Kis(2)-Kid(2) heterohexamer is the most abundant species. NMR chemical shift and intensity perturbations in the (1)H (15)N HSQC spectra of Kid and Kis, observed when titrating the partner protein, show that the interaction sites of Kid and Kis resemble those within the previously reported MazF(2)-MazE(2)-MazF(2) complex. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Kid(2)-MazE(2) tetramers can be formed via weak interactions involving a limited part of the Kis-binding residues of Kid. The functional roles of the identified Kid-Kis and Kid-MazE interaction sites and complexes in toxin neutralization and repression of transcription are discussed.
Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) are common hospital pathogens that are resistant to most major classes of antibiotics. The incidence of VRE is increasing rapidly, to the point where over one-quarter of enterococcal infections in intensive care units are now resistant to vancomycin. The exact mechanism by which VRE maintains its plasmid-encoded resistance genes is ill-defined, and novel targets for the treatment of VRE are lacking. In an effort to identify novel protein targets for the treatment of VRE infections, we probed the plasmids obtained from 75 VRE isolates for the presence of toxin-antitoxin (TA) gene systems. Remarkably, genes for one particular TA pair, the mazEF system (originally identified on the Escherichia coli chromosome), were present on plasmids from 75/75 (100%) of the isolates. Furthermore, mazEF was on the same plasmid as vanA in the vast majority of cases (>90%). Plasmid stability tests and RT-PCR raise the possibility that this plasmid-encoded mazEF is indeed functional in enterococci. Given this ubiquity of mazEF in VRE and the deleterious activity of the MazF toxin, disruption of mazEF with pharmacological agents is an attractive strategy for tailored antimicrobial therapy.