PubMed · 6059073
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M L Pringle. 1967. Early learning and later progress.. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6059073/
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Theoretical understanding of psychosexual development, particularly in regard to sexual identity, has undergone several historical changes. Most notable has been the transition away from a learning paradigm, which held that individuals are psychosexually neutral at birth and that they develop their sexual identity due to rearing. This has shifted to contemporary acceptance that an interaction of both nature and nurture is responsible for psychosexual development. That there probably exists an inherent predisposition or bias toward a male or female identity, which is inferred by prenatal influences, is also current theory. However, while this shift has occurred in the theoretical understanding of the phenomenon, a comparable shift has not occurred in the clinical management of individuals where sex assignment or reassignment is a real issue. The theoretical change and real case management should be concordant.
The effects of maternal child-rearing attitudes, as measured by the Child Rearing Practices Report, on 5-yr.-old children's Verbal IQ and Performance IQ were investigated in a Scandinavian sample of 108 boys and 126 girls. The maternal child-rearing attitude of Restrictiveness, as defined by scores on the Report, showed negative relations to the cognitive measures. However, the significant negative relation between Restrictiveness and Verbal IQ, obtained for both sexes, disappeared when the effects of maternal IQ and socioeconomic status were controlled. The maternal child-rearing attitude of Nurturance, as defined by scores on the Report, was significantly related to Verbal IQ and Performance IQ for boys only. Significant relationships between scores on Nurturance and cognitive abilities of boys remained when the effects of maternal IQ and socioeconomic status were controlled.
Placing the infant in a device which restrained his/her movement was a traditional custom of infant caretaking in a number of parts of the world, and is still observed in some of them. An example of such practices, swaddling, was investigated with Native Americans, the Aymara, in Bolivia, and caretaking behaviors in 24 swaddling and 18 non-swaddling families were compared. Results did not support the notion that swaddling was a form of infant neglect on the part of caretakers. Swaddling caretakers actually exhibited as strong interest in the infant as non-swaddling caretakers, and spent more money on his/her clothes. The mother spent less time for infant care in the swaddling family. However, other members of the family took more time to take care of the infant than those in the non-swaddling family. It is argued that swaddling effectively encourages non-mother family members to participate in infant caretaking, in addition to serving a potentially beneficial function to protect infants from unsafe and unsanitary home environments.