PubMed · 5202521
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E Kent. A token economy program for schizophrenic patients.. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.1970.tb01321.x
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Longitudinal data sets from certain fields of biomedical research often consist of several variables repeatedly measured on each subject yielding a large number of observations. This characteristic complicates the use of traditional longitudinal modelling strategies, which were primarily developed for studies with a relatively small number of repeated measures per subject. An innovative way to model such 'wide' data is to apply functional regression analysis, an emerging statistical approach in which observations of the same subject are viewed as a sample from a functional space. Shen and Faraway introduced an F test for linear models with functional responses. This paper illustrates how to apply this F test and functional regression analysis to the setting of longitudinal data. A smoking cessation study for methadone-maintained tobacco smokers is analysed for demonstration. In estimating the treatment effects, the functional regression analysis provides meaningful clinical interpretations, and the functional F test provides consistent results supported by a mixed-effects linear regression model. A simulation study is also conducted under the condition of the smoking data to investigate the statistical power for the F test, Wilks' likelihood ratio test, and the linear mixed-effects model using AIC.
A large proportion of disease and death cases could be prevented, if efficacious programs, particularly concerning tobacco smoking, obesity, and alcohol risk drinking, could be applied. Feasible approaches are based, among others, on the Transtheoretical Model of intentional health behavior change. This model allows to develop practical approaches to reduce risk factors of common diseases at the general population level. Evidence about the promotion of the intention to change health risk behaviors revealed successes, e. g., according to smoking cessation. The effects are growing by time. Intervention that is focused at the promotion of change of health risk behaviors can add to the improvement of health care.
Pharmacotherapy is most appropriate in acute pain, whereas in chronic pain states behavioral approaches or a combination of behavioral treatment and pharmacotherapy is more appropriate. In this chapter we first describe the role of learning and memory as well as other psychological factors in the development of chronic pain and emphasize that chronic pain must viewed as the result of a learning process with resulting central neuroplastic changes. We then describe operant behavioral and cognitive-behavioral treatments as well as biofeedback and relaxation techniques and present innovative treatment procedures aimed at altering central pain memories. We complete the section with a discussion of combined behavioral and pharmacological approaches and an interdisciplinary view.