Genome diversity and evolution of the duckweed section Alatae comprising diploids, polyploids, and interspecific hybrids.

Untangling the Arisaema enigma: Investigating the complex evolutionary history and species relationships in North American Arisaema.

PREMISE: The evolutionary history of morphologically variable plant groups is often obscured by cryptic diversity, morphological convergence, and limited genetic data. Arisaema, a diverse genus within Araceae, exemplifies these challenges. Although some taxonomic treatments recognize only two species of North American Arisaema (A. dracontium and A. triphyllum), other studies have identified morphologically distinct groups within both taxa. Here, we reconstructed evolutionary relationships in North American Arisaema, assessed genetic structure and admixture, and tested the monophyly of proposed species. METHODS: We used 2b-RAD sequencing to generate genome-wide SNP data for 146 samples from 31 populations across the eastern United States. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred using maximum-likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Population structure and admixture were assessed using the program structure and principal component analysis (PCA). RESULTS: Both the Arisaema triphyllum and A. dracontium complexes formed well-supported monophyletic groups. Within the A. dracontium complex, we recovered three monophyletic lineages: A. dracontium, A. calciphilum, and A. macrospathum. In the A. triphyllum complex, A. quinatum, A. stewardsonii, and A. allegheniense consistently formed distinct groups. Relationships between A. pusillum and A. acuminatum, and among A. triphyllum s.s., A. purpurascens, and A. striatum were less clearly resolved, likely due to recent or incomplete divergence, gene flow, or polyploidy. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the monophyly of multiple newly proposed taxa within North American Arisaema, but additional sampling across the species' ranges is needed to fully resolve species boundaries. Our study provides the first evolutionary framework for this group, providing a foundation for future ecological, taxonomic, and conservation research in the genus.