PubMed · 11629059
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P Charroppin. 1983. [Not Available].. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11629059/
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We present the most extensive phylogenetic analysis to date, to our knowledge, of higher-level nemertean relationships, based on sequence data from four different genes (the nuclear genes for nuclear large subunit rRNA (28S rRNA) and histone H3 (H3), and the mitochondrial genes for mitochondrial large subunit rRNA (16S rRNA) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI)). Well-supported clades are, in general, compatible with earlier, more limited, analyses, and current classification is largely in agreement with our results, although there are some notable exceptions. Bdellonemertea (represented by Malacobdella) is found to be a part of Monostilifera, and Polystilifera is the monophyletic sister group to Monostilifera. Cratenemertidae is the sister group to the remaining monostiliferans (including Malacobdella), a group to which we apply the new name Distromatonemertea. Heteronemertea is monophyletic and forms a clade with Hubrechtella; for this clade we introduce the name Pilidiophora. Finally, Pilidiophora and Hoplonemertea (with Malacobdella) form a monophyletic group, and we introduce the name Neonemertea to refer to this group. Palaeonemertea is found to be non-monophyletic and basal among nemerteans.
The evolutionary-ecology approach to studying immune defences has generated a number of hypotheses that help to explain the observed variance in responses. Here, selected topics are reviewed in an attempt to identify the common problems, connections and generalities of the approach. In particular, the cost of immune defence, response specificity, sexual selection, neighbourhood effects and questions of optimal defence portfolios are discussed. While these questions still warrant further investigation, future challenges are the development of synthetic concepts for vertebrate and invertebrate systems and also of the theory that predicts immune responses based on a priori principles of evolutionary ecology.
Animals and products derived from different organs of their bodies have constituted part of the inventory of medicinal substances used in various cultures since ancient times. This article reviews the history of healing with animals in the Levant (the Land of Israel and parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, defined by the Muslims in the Middle Ages as Bilad al-Sham) throughout history. Intensive research into the phenomenon of zootherapy in the Levant from early medieval to present-day traditional medicine yielded 99 substances of animal origin which were used medicinally during that long period. Fifty-two animal extracts and products were documented as being used from the early Muslim period (10th century) to the late Ottoman period (19th century). Seventy-seven were recorded as being used in the 20th century. Seven main animal sources have been exploited for medical uses throughout history: honey, wax, adder, beaver testicles, musk oil, coral, and ambergris. The first three are local and relatively easy to obtain; the last four are exotic, therefore, rare and expensive. The use of other materials of animal origin came to an end in the course of history because of change in the moral outlook of modern societies. Among the latter we note mummy, silkworm, stinkbug, scarabees, snail, scorpion, and triton.