Biomedical subjects

Y C Ko

Publications and source records attributed to Y C Ko.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

PubMed2000

Serum alanine aminotransferase levels in relation to hepatitis B and C virus infections among drug abusers in an area hyperendemic for hepatitis B.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections are the major agents responsible for hepatitis in Taiwan. The purpose of this study was to assess the serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity in relation to HBV and HCV infection among drug abusers. This survey included 769 male drug abusers aged 14-59 years, from the Kaohsiung Narcotic Abstention Institute and Kaohsiung Prision. The prevalence of HBsAg seropositivity was 21.5%, and anti-HCV seropositivity was 27.2%, respectively. Drug abusers with HBsAg or anti-HCV had higher serum AST and ALT levels than those without HBsAg and anti-HCV. The prevalence of raised ALT and AST (> or =45 IU/liter) in the HCV-positive group was more significant than in the negative group, while that of the HBsAg-positive group did not reach statistical significance. Among the HCV-positive group, ALT levels are more closely associated with HCV infection than AST levels. Our results indicated that HCV infection plays an important role in the etiology of raised ALT activity among drug abusers, while HBV infection plays a minor role. ALT screening still remains a simple and valuable method in the early recognition of HCV infection.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Differences in physician utilization between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children.

OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we examined the factors affecting Aboriginal children's visits to a medical practitioner and compared them with non-Aboriginal children. METHODS: We selected five Aboriginal communities and four neighbouring non-Aboriginal communities, and conducted a door-to-door survey, covering all children born after 1983. Of an initial sample of 1013 children, 896 (response rate 89.92% for non-Aboriginal children and 85.87% for Aboriginal children) completed the questionnaire for analysis. RESULTS: In all, 896 children of non-mixed lineage with an age range of 0-12 years were collected into the study, including 316 Aborigines and 580 non-Aborigines. A higher percentage of non-Aboriginal children had more national health insurance coverage than Aboriginal children. The ratio of parents using the services of an out of community medical practitioner when their children were sick was higher for Aboriginal parents than for non-Aborigines. Medical injection frequency was higher in Aboriginal children. Linear regression was used to examine the factors affecting the frequency of physician utilization in the preceding month. CONCLUSION: A lower national health insurance coverage rate, and a higher rate of intramuscular injections for Aboriginal children plus difficulties in access to medical resources due to travel time and travel distance are still major problems for the Aborigines.

Child↗

PubMed2000

Lifetime environmental exposure to tobacco smoke and primary lung cancer of non-smoking Taiwanese women.

BACKGROUND: For a female population with a high lung cancer mortality rate, such as Taiwanese women, who smoke relatively rarely, but live in an environment with high male smoking prevalence, the risk and population burden of lung cancer due to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) are relatively important. METHODS: An age-matched case-control study was designed to investigate the effects of cumulative environmental exposure to tobacco smoke during childhood and adult life on lung cancer risk among non-smoking women in Taiwan. Information on passive smoking from all possible sources and life periods were obtained from interviews with 268 and 445 lifetime non-smoking cases and controls. Conditional logistic regression and synergism 'S' index were applied to the data to assess the independent and joint effects of passive smoking in different life stages while controlling for possible confounding variables. RESULTS: Risks of contracting lung cancer among women near-distantly exposed to the highest level of ETS in childhood (>20 smoker-years) and in adult life (>40 smoker-years) were 1.8-fold (95% CI: 1.2-2.9) and 2.2-fold (95% CI: 1.4-3.7) higher than that among women being never exposed to ETS, and the two variables accounted for about 37% of tumours in this non-smoking female population. Children were found to be more susceptible to ETS than adults and such early exposure was found to modify the effect of subsequent tobacco smoke exposure in adult life based on an additive interaction model. CONCLUSIONS: Environmental tobacco smoke exposure occurring in childhood potentiates the effect of high doses of exposure in adult life in determining the development of lung cancer. Smoking prohibition would be expected to protect about 37% of non-smoking Taiwanese women against lung cancer.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Survival rate for liver cancer in Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: There is no nationwide population-based study of the survival rate for liver cancer in Taiwan. Consequently, the true rate of liver cancer survival is unknown. Our aim was to determine the survival rate for liver cancer patients in Taiwan. METHOD: The Taiwan Cancer Registry was searched for liver cancer cases in 1987 and 2,558 cases were found. Of these, 485 lacked an identification number, 29 lacked documentation of age, 33 were metastatic, nine lived in Kinmen and Lienkiang Hsien of Fukien Province leaving 2,002 to be studied. With the help of identification numbers, we linked our cases with the Death Registry of the Department of Health, Executive Yuan, ROC, for the 1987 to 1992 period and calculated the five-year survival rate using actuarial life tables. For analyzing factors affecting the five-year survival rate, multivariate analysis with the Cox proportional hazards model was used. RESULTS: Of the 2,002 patients, 752 were diagnosed histopathologically and 1,250 patients were diagnosed clinically. A total of 15% of patients survived for five years or longer after diagnosis. Of those diagnosed histopathologically, 17% survived for five or more years, and of those diagnosed clinically, 13% survived for five or more years. The sex, age, residential area and ethnic origin did not affect the five-year survival rate significantly. Only diagnosis type affected the five-year survival rate significantly (p < 0.05). The 660 pathologically diagnosed liver cancer patients had a better survival rate than the 1,250 patients diagnosed clinically. CONCLUSIONS: The overall five-year survival rate for liver cancer in Taiwan was 15%. The prognosis for liver cancer patients in Taiwan is still unfavorable. The aim is to persuade affected patients to accept treatment.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Genotoxicity of fumes from heated cooking oils produced in Taiwan.

Epidemiologic investigations of lung cancer among Taiwanese nonsmoking women have found that exposure to fumes from cooking oils may be an important risk factor. Fume samples from three different commercial cooking oils (lard, soybean, and peanut oils) often used in Taiwan for preparing Chinese meals were collected for genotoxicity analysis in SOS chromotest and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assays. The induction factors of the SOS chromotest in Escherichia coli PQ 37 were dependent on the concentrations of lard and soybean cooking oil extracts without S9 mix. In addition, when CHO-K1 cells were exposed to condensates of cooking oil fumes for 12 h, SCEs showed a dose-related increase in extracts of lard and soybean oil fumes. This result provides experimental evidence and is in accordance with the findings of epidemiologic studies that women exposed to the emitted fumes of cooking oils are at an increase risk of contracting lung cancer.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Identification of carcinogens in cooking oil fumes.

According to earlier studies, fumes from cooking oils were found to be genotoxic in several short-term tests such as the Ames test, sister chromatid exchange, and SOS chromotest. Fume samples from six different commercial cooking oils (safflower, olive, coconut, mustard, vegetable, and corn) frequently used in Taiwan were collected. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were extracted from the air samples and identified by high-performance liquid chromatography and confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Extracts of fumes from safflower oil, vegetable oil, and corn oil contained benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBahA), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbFA), and benzo[a]anthracene (BaA). Concentrations of BaP, DbahA, BbFA, and BaA were 2.1, 2.8, 1.8, and 2.5 microg/m3 in fumes from safflower oil; 2.7, 3.2, 2.6, and 2.1 microg/m3 in vegetable oil; and 2.6, 2.4, 2.0, and 1.9 microg/m3 in corn oil, respectively. The authors constructed models to study the efficacy of table-edged fume extractors used commonly by Taiwanese restaurants. Concentrations of BaP were significantly decreased when the fume extractor was working (P<0.05) and the average reduction in percentage was 75%. The other identified PAHs were undetected. These results indicated that exposure to cooking oil fumes could possibly increase exposure to PAHs, which may be linked to an increased risk of lung cancer. The potential carcinogenic exposure could be reduced by placing table-edged fume extractors near cooking pots.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed1999

Association between indoor and outdoor air pollution and adolescent asthma from 1995 to 1996 in Taiwan.

The study aim was to estimate the contribution of indoor and outdoor air pollution to the 1-year prevalence of adolescent asthma after personal susceptibility and other potential risk factors were taken into account. A large-scaled cross-sectional study was conducted among 165,173 high school students aged 11 to 16 years in the different communities of Kaohsiung and Pintong in Taiwan, from October 1995 to June 1996. Each student and his/her parents participating in the study completed a video and a written International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire about symptoms of wheezing and allergies, passive smoking, and demographic variables. After adjustment for potential confounders, adolescents exposed to cigarette smoking (odds ratio = 1.29, 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.17-1.42) and environmental tobacco smoke (odds ratio = 1.08, 95% CI, 1.05-1.12) were found to suffer from asthma at an increased frequency. We observed a statistically significant association between outdoor air pollution and asthma, after controlling for potential confound variables. Total suspended particulate, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and airborne dust particles all displayed an independent association with asthma, respectively. There were no selection biases in this community-based study, which provides evidence that passive smoking and long-term, high average outdoor air pollution are independent risk factors of asthma.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Hepatitis C virus infection among short-term intravenous drug users in southern Taiwan.

The purpose of this study was to determine the correlation between the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection with duration of drug use and other risk factors among drug users. This survey covered 899 male drug users from Kaohsiung Narcotic Abstention Institute and Kaohsiung prison. The prevalence of positive anti-HCV was 67.2% among intravenous drug users (IVDU) and 14.7% among non-intravenous drug users (non-IVDU). Among intravenous (IV) drug users, age and duration of drug use were independently related to HCV seropositivity. Seroprevalence rate for HCV in the IVDU group increased with increasing duration of injection use within the first seven years of drug use. However, the steepest trajectory in seroprevalence of HCV infection occurred within the first four months. Due to the high rate of HCV infection among drug users, investigation of risk behaviors should be routine in such a group. A high frequency of HCV infection was also found among short-term injectors, which indicated that early risk reduction intervention was an important measure in moderating HCV infection.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Betel quid chewing and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among aborigines in southern Taiwan.

It is known that substance use is associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy, outcomes. The aims of this study were to estimate the prevalence of alcohol, cigarette, betel quid and drug use during pregnancy and to assess the risk of adverse effects of betel quid chewing on pregnancy outcomes in aboriginal women in southern Taiwan. The study population included 62 women with adverse pregnancy outcomes and 124 age-matched women. Subjects were interviewed at their homes by trained interviewers using a structure questionnaire. Prevalences of various substance use in aborigines with adverse pregnancy outcomes were estimated as follows: alcohol, 43.6%; smoking, 14.5%; betel quid chewing, 43.6% and over-the-counter drug use, 8.1%; whereas in the comparison group it was alcohol, 38.7%; smoking, 8.1%; betel quid chewing, 28.2% and none used drugs. Univariate analysis revealed that adverse pregnancy outcomes were associated with maternal betel quid chewing, maternal illness during pregnancy, and the number of pregnancies (gravidity) experienced. After adjusting for maternal illness and number of previous pregnancies covariates, the prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcome was computed to be 2.8-fold higher among betel quid chewing women as compared to non-chewers (AOR=2.8, 95% CI=1.2-6.8). Among the aboriginal women, prenatal care is essential not only for routine care, but also to focus health education on the harmful effects of substance use, especially betel quid use during pregnancy.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Climate, traffic-related air pollutants, and asthma prevalence in middle-school children in taiwan.

This study compared the prevalence of asthma with climate and air pollutant data to determine the relationship between asthma prevalence and these factors. We conducted a nationwide survey of respiratory illness and symptoms in middle-school students in Taiwan. Lifetime prevalences of physician-diagnosed asthma and of typical symptoms of asthma were compared to air monitoring station data for temperature, relative humidity, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter [less than/equal to] 10 microm (PM(10)). A total of 331,686 nonsmoking children attended schools located within 2 km of 55 stations. Asthma prevalence rates adjusted for age, history of atopic eczema, and parental education were associated with nonsummer (June-August) temperature, winter (January-March) humidity, and traffic-related air pollution, especially carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, for both girls and boys. Nonsummer temperature, winter humidity, and traffic-related air pollution, especially carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, were positively associated with the prevalence of asthma in middle-school students in Taiwan.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Vaccine storage practices in primary care physicians' offices in Taiwan.

To assess vaccine storage practices in Taiwan's clinics, an evaluation was made to determine whether they follow the relevant guidelines. A cross sectional study was carried out in March 1994, in which sixty-three clinics were selected at random from the 744 clinics in the twenty-one counties of Taiwan. Vaccine storage practices were inspected and the temperature of the central core of refrigerators used by these clinics for vaccine storage was measured. Of the 63 clinics, the majority (93.7%) stored articles other than vaccines in their vaccine refrigerators. Thirty clinics (47.6%) placed simple thermometers in their refrigerators; twenty-nine clinics (46.0%) used recording thermometers to produce temperature charts; and 25 clinics (39.7%) equipped their refrigerators with UPS (uninterruptable power system). Forty (63.5%) of 63 vaccine coordinators who were interviewed indicated at least one power failure per year. All refrigerators used for vaccine storage were of the domestic type without "safe zone" gauges. We discovered inappropriately high temperatures (> 8 degrees C) in 22% (14/63) of all refrigerators. Most refrigerator doors (76.3%, 45/59) or freezing rooms (73.7%, 28/38) were not maintained at a temperature required for storing vaccine. Coordinators should be carefully trained and refrigeration and electrical facilities be reassessed to improve vaccine storage in primary care physicians' offices.

Primary Health Care↗

PubMed1999

Identification of a new single nucleotide substitution on the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene (HPRT(Tsou) from a Taiwanese aboriginal family with severe gout.

OBJECTIVE: A new single nucleotide change of the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) gene on coding region has been identified from a Taiwanese aboriginal family with gout. The mutation was used to screen 27 members of the family, 22 Tsou, 70 Atayal, and 76 Bunun children, the elders for whom had been found to have a high prevalence of gout. METHODS: An entire peptide of HPRT coding region was directly sequenced from the cDNA of a patient with severe gout, and by using polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism to screen the other participants. RESULTS: A new nucleotide change located at nucleotide 152 (G to A transition) was found that predicted an arginine to glutamine substitution at amino acid 51. This variant was named HPRT(Tsou), and was found in 3 women and 3 men among the patient's 7 siblings, 2 boys and 2 girls among the 8 children of the siblings, and one female Tsou (4.5%, 1/22) and one female Atayal (1.4%, 1/70). The serum uric acid concentration among male HPRT(Tsou) carriers in the patient's family was significantly higher than among those who had at least one HPRT gene that did not have HPRT(Tsou). CONCLUSION: We found that the HPRT(Tsou) gene variant is partially responsible for the hyperuricemia in an aboriginal population in Taiwan known for a high incidence of gout.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Cancer mortality trends in a blackfoot disease endemic community of Taiwan following water source replacement.

Blackfoot disease is an endemic peripheral vascular disease found among people in a limited area on the southwest coast of Taiwan, where artesian well water has a high concentration of arsenic and was used since the turn of this century. This is an important public health problem and was noted by the authorities, who began improving the water supply in such communities in 1956. This enabled us to test the relationship between arsenic and malignant tumors using a specific exposed community. Study subjects were divided into four groups according to age (under or over 40 yr) and gender. Two methods were used for the estimation of the age-adjusted mortality rate ratios. First using the first time interval (1971-1973) as the standard, the mortality rate ratio for all malignant tumors was estimated from this interval through to the last interval (1992-1994) using Poisson regression. Cancers that were found to be related to arsenic in previous reports, such as liver, lung, bladder, kidney, and skin cancers, were examined and other malignant tumors except these cancers were also assessed. The same calculations were performed for all of Chiayi and Tainan counties, excluding the study areas, which were used as the local reference, and for the general population of Taiwan, which was used as a national reference group. Second, mortality rate ratios for the study area were compared to the local and national reference for the same time intervals for each disease category. From our results, significantly declining trends for mortality rate ratios of all malignant tumors with 1971-1973 as the standard were found for the study areas, especially in females. A decrease of mortality rate ratios from malignant cancers, compared to the local or national references, was found in those aged over 40 yr for both sexes. The decreases are mainly due to a fall in internal and skin cancer mortality rates. In conclusion, our results suggest that the improvement of drinking water supply to eliminate arsenic exposure from artesian well water decreased the mortality incidence of arsenic-related cancers in blackfoot disease endemic communities.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contents of fumes from heated cooking oils and prevention of mutagenicity by catechin.

According to earlier studies, fumes from cooking oils were found to be mutagenic and several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), (benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), benz(a)antracene (B(a)A), and dibenz(a,h)anthracene (DB(ah)A)) were identified. Fume samples from three different commercial cooking oils frequently used in Taiwan were collected and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) were extracted from the samples and identified by HPLC chromatography. Extracts from three cooking oil fumes contained 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and 1,3-dinitropyrene (1,3-DNP). Concentrations of 1-NP and 1,3-DNP were 1.1 +/- 0.1 and 0.9 +/- 0.1 micrograms/m3 in fumes from lard oil, 2.9 +/- 0.3 and 3.4 +/- 0.2 micrograms/m3 in soybean oil, 1.5 +/- 0.1 and 0.4 +/- 0.1 micrograms/m3 in peanut oil, respectively. The preventive effect of three natural antioxidants (gamma-tocopherol (TOC), lecithin (LEC), and catechin (CAT)) for the reduction of mutagenicity and amounts of PAHs and NPAHs of fumes from cooking oils were evaluated. Mutagenicity of cooking oil fumes occurred, and the concentration of B(a)P were significantly reduced (p < 0.05), by adding CAT into cooking oils before heating. B(a)A, DB(ah)A, and two NPAHs were not detected when the concentration of CAT was 500 ppm in all three cooking oil fumes. These results indicate that fumes of cooking oils contained PAHs and NPAHs that may be a risk factor for lung cancer among cooks and the carcinogens could be reduced by adding the natural antioxidant, catechin.

Antimutagenic Agents↗

PubMed1998

Survival and distribution pattern of childhood liver cancer in Taiwan.

Studies of survival and distribution of liver cancer in children are scarce. In this study, using data from the cancer registry of Taiwan, from 1979 to 1992, we identified 377 young patients (0-15 years of age) suffering from liver cancer, coded 155 according to the International Classification of Diseases. Among these patients, 122 were histopathologically proven hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and 43 hepatoblastoma (HB). For survival analysis, we also searched for cases of liver cancer in 0-16 year old children in the Taiwan cancer registry for the period between 1988 and 1992. We found 109 cases with identification numbers and birth dates which allowed our cases to be linked with the death registry of the National Health Department of Taiwan enabling the calculation of 5-year survival rates using actuarial life tables. Between 1979 and 1992, for 122 HCC cases, there was a peak incidence at the age of 1 year, then a decline to a trough at the age of 4 years, after which the number of cases increased to the age of 15 years. After the age of 4 years boys outnumbered the girls by 2:1. 36 (84%) of 43 HB cases were under the age of 5 years and boys tended to outnumber girls by 2.9:1. Between 1988 and 1992, of the 109 patients, 49 were diagnosed histopathologically and 60 patients clinically. Their overall 5-year survival rate was 19%. The 5-year survival rate of the 28 HCC patients was 17%, whereas that of the 17 HB patients was 47%. In conclusion, our epidemiological findings indicate that the HCC distribution among children is different according to age and to some extent sex. The overall 5-year survival rate of children suffering from liver cancer was still unfavourable.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Prevalence and related risk factors of licit and illicit substances use by adolescent students in southern Taiwan.

Deleterious health sequelae caused by licit and illicit substance use is a serious problem in our society. Adolescent students and particularly those who are prone to substance use are of special concern in the prevention of drug abuse. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of alcohol consumption, tobacco smoking and illicit drug use and to identify the risk factors related to these habits among adolescent students. A total of 1358 adolescent students aged 16-18 y old were recruited into this study via stratified random sampling from a vocational school in Kaohsiung city. Students were asked to complete a structured questionnaire anonymously and a 96.7% response rate was achieved. Prevalence of substances use was estimated as follows: alcohol drinking, 70.7% (boys 75.1%, girls 51.4%); tobacco smoking, 56% (boys 61.8%, girls 30.2%); illicit drug use 6.4% (boys 6.6%, girls 5.6%). Significant risk factors that emerged as common correlates with substances use were behaviour problems, non-negative attitude toward parent's substance use, and peer influence. A dose-response relationship was found between the prevalence of drinking, smoking, illicit drug use and the number of risk factors adolescents were exposed to. Prevention of adolescent substance abuse should be attempted and risk factors should be reduced. An educational approach is essential not only to gain/impart knowledge of substance abuse, but also to develop an effective program for health and social development.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Aminoguanidine reduces glomerular inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta1) mRNA expression and diminishes glomerulosclerosis in NZB/W F1 mice.

Over-expression of iNOS is implicated in the pathogenesis of glomerulonephritis in animal models of systemic lupus erythematosus. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of aminoguanidine, a selective inhibitor of iNOS, for the protection from glomerulosclerosis in NZB/W F1 mice. Female NZB/W F1 mice (n = 8) were treated with aminoguanidine (1 g/l) in drinking water for 4 months starting at age 2 months before the onset of glomerulonephritis. Controls were age- and sex-matched mice (n = 10) without aminoguanidine treatment. By glomerular microdissection and reverse-transcription competitive polymerase chain reaction, we found that glomerular iNOS/beta-actin and TGF-beta1/beta-actin mRNA ratios were reduced 15.1% (P<0.05) and 61.3% (P<0.01), respectively, in aminoguanidine-treated mice. Aminoguanidine significantly reduced the glomerular iNOS staining, urinary nitrite production and degree of glomerulosclerosis. In addition, the glomerular volume and mean glomerular cell number were reduced 33.2% (P<0.01) and 32.8% (P<0.01), respectively. Likewise, the urinary proteinuria was also significantly reduced by aminoguanidine. These results indicate that administration of aminoguanidine may reduce the progression of glomerulosclerosis in NZB/W F1 mice, possibly through inhibition of glomerular nitric oxide production.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Prevention of exposure to mutagenic fumes produced by hot cooking oil in Taiwanese kitchens.

We evaluated the mutagens in fumes produced by heating three different cooking oils used in Taiwan to temperatures of 100 degrees C, 200 degrees C, and 300 degrees C, and constructed models to study the efficacy of fume extractors used commonly by Taiwanese women. Particulates of volatile emissions from lard (at 200 degrees C and 300 degrees C) and soybean oil (at 300 degrees C) were found to be mutagenic in the Salmonella/microsomal test with S9 mix, indicating that exposure of Taiwanese women to cooking oil fumes may be an important risk factor in the etiology of their lung cancer. Mutagenicity of lard and soybean oil fumes collected at 300 degrees C was obtained when a commonly used fume extractor was located at a usual distance of 70 cm above the oil surface, whereas the fume samples were not, or weakly, mutagenic in the Salmonella/ microsomal assay when the distance between fume extractor and oil surface was 60 cm or less. Reduction in mutagenicity was on average 1.2 +/- 0.5 revertants/cm (the percent reduction in mutagenicity was 46%), pointing to a possible cooking practice involving significant reductions in exposure to harmful oil fumes and, consequently, a decreased risk of lung cancer in Taiwanese housewives.

Cooking↗