Antipsychotic use and expenditure in the United States.
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Antipsychotic Agents↗
Biomedical subjects
Vinod Bhatara
Publications and source records attributed to Vinod Bhatara.
Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: an exploratory study.
OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: To explore association between prevalence of ADHD and levels of risk for gestational alcohol exposure, the authors reviewed the charts of 2,231 youth referred for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Participants were categorized into four groups by different levels of risk for gestational alcohol exposure. For each group, the prevalence rates of ADHD and other selected disorders were determined. RESULTS: The disorder ranking first in overall prevalence was ADHD (41%), followed by learning disorder (17%) and oppositional-defiant/conduct disorder (16%). Prevalence rates of ADHD across the groups generally were high risk > some risk > unknown risk > no risk. CONCLUSION: The frequency distribution of ADHD cases was according to the levels of risk for gestational alcohol exposure. These results add to a growing body of evidence supporting an association between ADHD and prenatal alcohol exposure. Findings need to be confirmed by definitive studies on ADHD and gestational alcohol exposure.
Alcoholism↗
Antipsychotic prescribing trends among youths, 1997-2002.
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Adolescent↗
Coexistent hypothyroidism, psychosis, and severe obsessions in an adolescent: a 10-year follow-up.
UNLABELLED: This is the first longitudinal report on possible psychosis resulting from the juvenile onset of hypothyroidism. A 10-year follow-up in the case of a 13-year-old boy published in this journal in 1993 is presented. The patient presented with a diagnostic dilemma. Although psychosis resulting from hypothyroidism was the most parsimonious explanation of his symptoms (new-onset auditory hallucinations, severe obsessions, and severe hypothyroidism), a primary psychiatric disorder (obsessive-compulsive disorder [OCD] or psychotic depression) aggravated by hypothyroidism could not be excluded. The aim of this study was to illustrate that the diagnosis and clinical interrelationships can be clarified by longitudinal data. FOLLOW-UP DATA: The patient's symptoms responded optimally to a combination of fluvoxamine, risperidone, and levothyroxine (LT4, 300 microg daily). He was free from severe symptoms until age 21, when he discontinued all psychotropic medications while continuing with LT4. Over 2 months later, he was hospitalized for thoughts of hurting himself or others. In the hospital, his LT4 was discontinued and propranolol was started. He was discharged on multiple psychotropic medications, and was rehospitalized 6 days later for suicide risk. When LT4 (200 microg daily) was added to his psychotropic regimen, he partially responded and was discharged. The optimal response to treatment occurred only after he was placed on a combination of fluoxetine, risperidone, and LT4 (300 microg daily). The patient remained stable for up to 12 months of follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: This chronology suggests that the optimal treatment in this patient probably required three components: a Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor, (SSRI) risperidone, and LT4 (300 g daily). Each component was apparently necessary but not sufficient individually for the optimal response. The relapse after the discontinuation of fluvoxamine and risperidone (but not LT4) suggests the presence of a primary psychiatric disorder (OCD with depression). The failure to improve without an adequate dosage of LT4 suggests that hypothyroidism was probably an aggravating factor. This case illustrates the diagnostic difficulty in distinguishing between obsessions, depressive ruminations, and delusions in children and the need to consider hypothyroidism in the differential diagnosis of the sudden worsening of OCD, or in cases of new-onset psychosis in children and adolescents.
Adolescent↗
National trends in concomitant psychotropic medication with stimulants in pediatric visits: practice versus knowledge.
OBJECTIVES: (1) To examine U.S. national trends in the use of concomitant pharmacotherapy with the stimulant class of psychotropic drugs in youth; and (2) to present these trends in the context of (a) extant safety and efficacy data, and (b) overall trends in concomitant pharmacotherapy with psychotropic drugs for youth. METHODS: Prescribing data for youths under age 18 years from National Ambulatory Medical Surveys from 1993 to 1998 were analyzed. The visits were categorized into monotherapy (only one psychotropic prescribed) and concomitant pharmacotherapy (>1 psychotropic prescribed). The proportions of these groups were computed as a percentage of all visits during which a psychotropic medication was prescribed. Differences in proportions between surveys were analyzed to determine trends. RESULTS: Between 1993--94 and 1997--98, the proportions of visits for concomitant pharmacotherapy in association with the stimulant class increased nearly five-fold. This increase paralleled an overall increase in the proportion of visits involving prescription of more than one psychotropic medication among youth. CONCLUSIONS: The growth in concomitant pharmacotherapy with the stimulants class has out-paced the increase in safety/efficacy data to inform the use of this practice, resulting in a mismatch between trends in prescribing and growth in knowledge. A simultaneous trend of note is the overall increase in the use of concomitant pharmacotherapy with all psychotropic drugs in youth. Controlled trials are particularly needed to support commonly used combinations of stimulants with antidepressants in youth. In the absence of definitive data, clinical guidelines based on expert consensus and limited data are available and are useful.
Adolescent↗
Web-based classroom data collection in ADHD: a best practices case study.
BACKGROUND: Best practices research identifies and disseminates effective clinical strategies developed and refined by clinicians for their practices. As opposed to the content of health care, medical students and residents are typically not trained in the process of its provision. This paper illustrates a best practices approach to development of a Web-based classroom data collection method to improve medication management in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). OBJECTIVES: 1) To increase Primary Care Physician (PCP) awareness of the process of best practices research, and; 2) to highlight the use of the World Wide Web as a tool for integration of care of children with ADHD. METHODS: Based on the review of a large national study in ADHD, the key ingredients for the best pharmacotherapy practices were identified. The lessons from the literature were adapted for local practice using the framework and steps for best practices outlined by Mold and Gregory. A conceptual model of managing information provided by parents/caregivers and teachers to PCPs was developed. Several steps were identified, including Web-based classroom behavioral data collection by a care manager and feedback reports to PCPs from a child psychiatrist based on the data collected. This model is currently being tested. CONCLUSION: Our preliminary experience suggests that a best practices approach has potential applications to a variety of primary care settings in South Dakota. We encourage PCPs to consider best practice strategies for their own practices. The practice-based research network (Rush Net) being developed by the Center for Rural Health Improvement of the University of South Dakota School of Medicine's Department of Family Medicine can be helpful in this regard.
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
A review of the case for neonatal thyrotropin screening in developing countries: the example of India.
BACKGROUND: Infantile hypothyroidism, either caused by iodine-deficiency disorder (IDD) or congenital hypothyroidism (CH), is the world's leading cause of preventable mental retardation. Such hypothyroidism has virtually been eliminated in the developed world by salt iodization and neonatal thyroid screening. However, most developing countries do not have neonatal thyroid screening programs. Using India as an example, we review the case for newborn screening in the developing world. METHODS: A literature review on infantile hypothyroidism in India was conducted and three Indian thyroid experts were queried about their views on neonatal screening in India. RESULTS: Iodine nutrition improved markedly in India during the 1990s; 49% of the households are now using adequately iodized salt. The control of IDD is still insufficient in India. Nationally representative data on neonatal screening in India are not available, but two regional studies have been published. One study (n = 12,407) measured cord blood thyrotropin and the other (n = 25,244) measured filter paper thyroxine. These studies reported difficult socioeconomic and organizational barriers to the implementation of neonatal screening in India. DISCUSSION: It is time for India to make neonatal thyroid screening and mandatory iodization of salt a priority and develop a comprehensive infantile hypothyroidism policy. Prioritization of infantile hypothyroidism prevention is justified by its high frequency, sensitivity of screening in detecting both IDD and CH, adverse consequences of missing diagnosis at birth, high effectiveness of prevention, severity of disability from hypothyroidism, cost effectiveness of prevention, and lack of a clinical method of diagnosis near birth.
Congenital Hypothyroidism↗
U.S. national trends in the use of antipsychotics during office visits, 1998-2002.
BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of studies on U.S. national trends in the use of antipsychotic medications in the 21st century. This study examined national trends in the prescribing of antipsychotic drugs in office-based physician practices. METHODS: National probability sample survey data from 1998-2002 National Ambulatory Medical Surveys were used to analyze the prescribing trends. The weighted visit estimates and percentages were compared across the years using z-test. RESULTS: The number of antipsychotic-related visits was found to increase significantly and nearly two-fold, from 4.6 million in 1998 to 8.6 million in 2002. During the same period, the number of visits for second-generation antipsychotic drugs nearly tripled. The proportion of visits for the second-generation agents, as a percentage of visits for all antipsychotic drugs, rose sharply from about 48% in 1998 to 84% in 2002. Correspondingly, the percentage of visits involving first-generation antipsychotic drugs declined. The growth in the number of visits involving antipsychotic drugs over the 5-year period was substantial (120%) in visits with non-psychiatrist physicians, but not in visits involving psychiatrists. CONCLUSIONS: The trend of growth in prescription of antipsychotic drugs in office visits, accounted by increased use of second-generation antipsychotics, has persisted into the 21st century. Increased prescribing of these agents by non-psychiatrists is also apparently fueling this trend. This trend of shift from first-to-second generation antipsychotic agents, though not unambiguously supported by extant safety and efficacy data, is endorsed by guidelines based on expert-consensus and limited data. Given the high-level use of second-generation drugs, more practical studies of these drugs, focusing on effectiveness or long-term outcomes, are needed.
Antipsychotic Agents↗