Biomedical subjects
Publications and source records attributed to S E Hyman.
An enhancer with two DNA elements, one containing the sequence CGTCA, is required for cyclic AMP- and phorbol ester-inducible transcription of the human proenkephalin gene. We report that an AP-2 element located adjacent to the enhancer acts synergistically with it to confer maximal response to cyclic AMP and phorbol esters.
Synthesis of the endogenous opioid precursor, proenkephalin, is regulated by neurotransmitters and membrane depolarization. These events act through second messenger dependent signal transduction pathways via a short inducible DNA enhancer to regulate transcription of the proenkephalin gene. Two DNA elements located within this enhancer are essential for the transcriptional response to cAMP and phorbol ester. Inactivation of either element by mutation or by alteration of their stereospecific alignment eliminates inducible enhancer activity. The promoter distal element, ENKCRE-1, in the absence of a functional adjacent ENKCRE-2 element, has no inherent capacity to activate transcription. However, in the presence of a functional ENKCRE-2 element, this element synergistically augments cAMP and phorbol ester inducible transcription. The promoter proximal element, ENKCRE-2, is essential for both basal and regulated enhancer function. Four different protein factors found in HeLa cell nuclear extracts bind in vitro to the enhancer region. ENKTF-1, a novel enhancer binding protein, binds to the DNA region encompassing ENKCRE-1. The transcription factors AP-1 and AP-4 bind to overlapping sites spanning ENKCRE-2, and a fourth transcription factor, AP-2, binds to a site immediately downstream of ENKCRE-2. The binding of ENKTF-1 to mutant ENKCRE-1 sequences in vitro correlates with the in vivo inducibility of the mutant elements suggesting that ENKTF-1 acts in combination with factors that recognize the ENKCRE-2 domain to regulate cAMP inducible transcription. Together, the two DNA elements, ENKCRE-1 and ENKCRE-2 and the protein factors with which they interact, play a critical role in the transduction and reception of signals transmitted from cell surface receptors to the proenkephalin nuclear transcription complex.
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Activation of neurotransmitter receptors can regulate transcription in postsynaptic cells through the actions of second messengers. Trans-synaptic regulation of transcription appears to be an important mechanism controlling the synthesis of molecules involved in neuronal signaling, especially neuropeptides. Proenkephalin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, and somatostatin have been shown to be transcriptionally regulated by the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP), as has the catecholamine synthesizing enzyme tryosine hydroxylase. cAMP-inducible elements have been mapped within these genes, and trans-acting factors which bind to several such elements have been identified. With the discovery that individual neurons generally contain multiple transmitters within their synaptic terminals, it has become important to understand in detail the mechanisms by which the synthesis of transmitters can be coregulated. Here we compare the structure and function of the proenkephalin cAMP-inducible enhancer with the mapped cAMP-inducible elements of the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin, and tyrosine hydroxylase genes and a putative cAMP-inducible element in the proto-oncogene c-fos. We have previously shown that the proenkephalin enhancer is composed of two different elements, ENKCRE-1 and ENKCRE-2. We show here that one of these, ENKCRE-2, is structurally similar to elements found within the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin, and tyrosine hydroxylase genes and binds a trans-acting factor that is competed for both in cotransfection experiments (in vivo) and in DNase I footprint assays (in vitro) by these other elements. The c-fos element has similar structural requirements to confer transcriptional induction by cAMP but competes less strongly. Protein purified by affinity chromatography with the ENKCRE-2 sequence binds to each of these elements. A second element within the proenkephalin cAMP-inducible enhancer, ENKCRE-1, binds a factor that is not competed for by these other genes and is therefore distinct. This analysis suggests a potential mechanism of transcriptional coregulation of the neuronally expressed genes investigated in this study and also demonstrates that multiple factors are involved in transcriptional activation by cAMP.
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Mental illnesses have a significant impact on public health and contribute to a substantial part of the disability of the general population. Recent research on understanding and treating such illnesses has produced data that can inform policymakers about how to improve the condition of persons who suffer from these illnesses. This paper discusses how this research can be used to inform policy decisions regarding the allocation of community treatment resources and what research is still needed.
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