Biomedical subjects

P P Mitra

Publications and source records attributed to P P Mitra.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2004

Studying the song development process: rationale and methods.

Current technology makes it possible to measure song development continuously throughout a vocal ontogeny. Here we briefly review some of the problems involved and describe experimental and analytic methods for automatic tracing of vocal changes. These techniques make it possible to characterize the specific methods the bird uses to imitate sounds: an automated song recognition procedure allows continuous song recording, followed by automated sound analysis that partition the song to syllables, extract acoustic features of each syllable, and summarize the entire song development process over time into a single database. The entire song development is then presentable in the form of images or movie clips. These Dynamic Vocal Development (DVD) maps show how each syllable type emerges, and how the bird manipulates syllable features to eventually approximate the model song. Most of the experimental and analytic methods described here have been organized into a software package, which also allows combined neural and sound recording to monitor changes in brain activity as vocal learning occurs. The software is available at http://ofer.sci.ccny.cuny.edu.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Song development: in search of the error-signal.

Song development provides an opportunity to study the mechanisms of vocal learning dynamically at molecular, cellular and systems levels, and across time scales ranging from minutes to months. To exploit these opportunities one needs to identify appropriate units, types and time scales of vocal change in nearly real time. The previous chapter by Tchernikovski et al. in this volume described techniques that make this research strategy feasible by allowing us to observe the song learning process through a "temporal microscope" with variable degrees of resolution. In this chapter we summarize some of the new observations and raise hypotheses about the learning strategy of the bird. We focus on inferences that can be drawn from behavioral observations to the nature and complexity of the instructive signal that guides the vocal change (error-signal). We examine two effects: i) the emergence of syllable types and ii) changes in features within a syllable type. We found that different features of the same syllable change during different and sometimes disjointed developmental windows. We discuss the possibility that song imitation is achieved by correcting partial errors, and that features of those partial errors change adaptively during development, perhaps concurrently with changes in perception and in motor proficiency. Those hypotheses can be best examined by across levels investigation, starting from identifying critical moments in song development and recording of articulatory dynamics and neural patterns when only a few features of specific syllables undergo rapid changes. Such investigation could relate behavioral events to brain mechanisms that guide song learning from moment-to-moment and across extended periods.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Effect of chromatic dispersion on nonlinear phase noise.

We consider the combined effects of amplified spontaneous emission noise, optical Kerr nonlinearity, and chromatic dispersion on phase noise in an optical communication system. The effect of amplified spontaneous emission noise and Kerr nonlinearity were considered previously by Gordon and Mollenauer [Opt. Lett. 15, 1351 (1990)], and the effect of nonlinearity was found to be severe. We investigate the effect of chromatic dispersion on phase noise and show that it can either enhance or suppress the nonlinear noise amplification. For large absolute values of dispersion the nonlinear effect is suppressed, and the phase noise is reduced to its linear value. For a range of negative values of dispersion, however, nonlinear phase noise is enhanced and exhibits a maximum related to the modulation instability found in amplitude fluctuations. Nonlinear phase noise is quenched by these effects even in dispersion-compensated systems; the degree of suppression is sensitively dependent on the dispersion map. We demonstrate these results analytically with a simple linearized model.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Towards quantification of vocal imitation in the zebra finch.

The transition from an amorphous subsong into mature song requires a series of vocal changes. By tracing song elements during development, we have shown that the imitation trajectory to the target could not be predicted based on monotonic progression of vocal changes, indicating an internal component that imposes constraints on song development. Here we further examine the nature of constraints on song imitation in the zebra finch. We first present techniques for identifying and tracing distinctive vocal changes, and then we examine how sequences of vocal change are expressed and coordinated. Examples suggest two types of constraints on song imitation, based on the nature of the temporal context. Developmentally diachronic constraints are imposed by sequential dependencies between vocal changes as a function of developmental time, whereas developmentally synchronic constraints are given by the acoustic context of notes within the song. Finally, we show that the tendency of birds to copy certain sounds in the song model before others might be related to such constraints. We suggest that documenting the full range of distinctive vocal changes and the coordination of their expression would be useful for testing mechanisms of vocal imitation.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed2002

Schrödinger equation with a spatially and temporally random potential: effects of cross-phase modulation in optical communication.

We model the effects of cross-phase modulation in frequency (or wavelength) division multiplexed optical communications systems, using a Schrödinger equation with a spatially and temporally random potential. Green's functions for the propagation of light in this system are calculated using Feynman path-integral and diagrammatic techniques. This propagation leads to a non-Gaussian joint distribution of the input and output optical fields. We use these results to determine the amplitude and timing jitter of a signal pulse and to estimate the system capacity in analog communication.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Nonlinear limits to the information capacity of optical fibre communications.

The exponential growth in the rate at which information can be communicated through an optical fibre is a key element in the 'information revolution'. However, as for all exponential growth laws, physical limits must be considered. The nonlinear nature of the propagation of light in optical fibre has made these limits difficult to elucidate. Here we use a key simplification to investigate the theoretical limits to the information capacity of an optical fibre arising from these nonlinearities. The success of our approach lies in relating the nonlinear channel to a linear channel with multiplicative noise, for which we are able to obtain analytical results. In fundamental distinction to linear channels with additive noise, the capacity of a nonlinear channel does not grow indefinitely with increasing signal power, but has a maximal value. The ideas presented here may have broader implications for other nonlinear information channels, such as those involved in sensory transduction in neurobiology. These have been often examined using additive noise linear channel models but, as we show here, nonlinearities can change the picture qualitatively.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Scalable architecture in mammalian brains.

Comparison of mammalian brain parts has often focused on differences in absolute size, revealing only a general tendency for all parts to grow together. Attempts to find size-independent effects using body weight as a reference variable obscure size relationships owing to independent variation of body size and give phylogenies of questionable significance. Here we use the brain itself as a size reference to define the cerebrotype, a species-by-species measure of brain composition. With this measure, across many mammalian taxa the cerebellum occupies a constant fraction of the total brain volume (0.13 +/- 0.02), arguing against the hypothesis that the cerebellum acts as a computational engine principally serving the neocortex. Mammalian taxa can be well separated by cerebrotype, thus allowing the use of quantitative neuroanatomical data to test evolutionary relationships. Primate cerebrotypes have progressively shifted and neocortical volume fractions have become successively larger in lemurs and lorises, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and hominoids, lending support to the idea that primate brain architecture has been driven by directed selection pressure. At the same time, absolute brain size can vary over 100-fold within a taxon, while maintaining a relatively uniform cerebrotype. Brains therefore constitute a scalable architecture.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2001

Dynamics of the vocal imitation process: how a zebra finch learns its song.

Song imitation in birds provides good material for studying the basic biology of vocal learning. Techniques were developed for inducing the rapid onset of song imitation in young zebra finches and for tracking trajectories of vocal change over a 7-week period until a match to a model song was achieved. Exposure to a model song induced the prompt generation of repeated structured sounds (prototypes) followed by a slow transition from repetitive to serial delivery of syllables. Tracking this transition revealed two phenomena: (i) Imitations of dissimilar sounds can emerge from successive renditions of the same prototype, and (ii) developmental trajectories for some sounds followed paths of increasing acoustic mismatch until an abrupt correction occurred by period doubling. These dynamics are likely to reflect underlying neural and articulatory constraints on the production and imitation of sounds.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed2001

Tripling the capacity of wireless communications using electromagnetic polarization.

Wireless communications are a fundamental part of modern information infrastructure. But wireless bandwidth is costly, prompting a close examination of the data channels available using electromagnetic waves. Classically, radio communications have relied on one channel per frequency, although it is well understood that the two polarization states of planar waves allow two distinct information channels; techniques such as 'polarization diversity' already take advantage of this. Recent work has shown that environments with scattering, such as urban areas or indoors, also possess independent spatial channels that can be used to enhance capacity greatly. In either case, the relevant signal processing techniques come under the heading of 'multiple-input/multiple-output' communications, because multiple antennae are required to access the polarization or spatial channels. Here we show that, in a scattering environment, an extra factor of three in channel capacity can be obtained, relative to the conventional limit using dual-polarized radio signals. The extra capacity arises because there are six distinguishable electric and magnetic states of polarization at a given point, rather than two as is usually assumed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Sampling properties of the spectrum and coherency of sequences of action potentials.

The spectrum and coherency are useful quantities for characterizing the temporal correlations and functional relations within and between point processes. This article begins with a review of these quantities, their interpretation, and how they may be estimated. A discussion of how to assess the statistical significance of features in these measures is included. In addition, new work is presented that builds on the framework established in the review section. This work investigates how the estimates and their error bars are modified by finite sample sizes. Finite sample corrections are derived based on a doubly stochastic inhomogeneous Poisson process model in which the rate functions are drawn from a low-variance gaussian process. It is found that in contrast to continuous processes, the variance of the estimators cannot be reduced by smoothing beyond a scale set by the number of point events in the interval. Alternatively, the degrees of freedom of the estimators can be thought of as bounded from above by the expected number of point events in the interval. Further new work describing and illustrating a method for detecting the presence of a line in a point process spectrum is also presented, corresponding to the detection of a periodic modulation of the underlying rate. This work demonstrates that a known statistical test, applicable to continuous processes, applies with little modification to point process spectra and is of utility in studying a point process driven by a continuous stimulus. Although the material discussed is of general applicability to point processes, attention will be confined to sequences of neuronal action potentials (spike trains), the motivation for this work.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1999

Thalamocortical dysrhythmia: A neurological and neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by magnetoencephalography.

Spontaneous magnetoencephalographic activity was recorded in awake, healthy human controls and in patients suffering from neurogenic pain, tinnitus, Parkinson's disease, or depression. Compared with controls, patients showed increased low-frequency theta rhythmicity, in conjunction with a widespread and marked increase of coherence among high- and low-frequency oscillations. These data indicate the presence of a thalamocortical dysrhythmia, which we propose is responsible for all the above mentioned conditions. This coherent theta activity, the result of a resonant interaction between thalamus and cortex, is due to the generation of low-threshold calcium spike bursts by thalamic cells. The presence of these bursts is directly related to thalamic cell hyperpolarization, brought about by either excess inhibition or disfacilitation. The emergence of positive clinical symptoms is viewed as resulting from ectopic gamma-band activation, which we refer to as the "edge effect." This effect is observable as increased coherence between low- and high-frequency oscillations, probably resulting from inhibitory asymmetry between high- and low-frequency thalamocortical modules at the cortical level.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Vocal imitation in zebra finches is inversely related to model abundance.

A juvenile male zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata, kept singly with its father develops a fairly complete imitation of the father's song. The imitation is less complete when other male siblings are present, possibly because as imitation commences, model abundance increases. Here we examine the consequences of allowing more or less access to a song model. Young males heard a brief song playback when they pecked at a key, but different males were allowed to hear different numbers of playbacks per day. Using an automated procedure that scored the similarity between model and pupil songs, we discovered that 40 playbacks of the song motif per day, lasting a total of 30 sec, resulted in a fairly complete imitation. More exposure led to less complete imitation. Vocal imitation often may reflect the interaction of diverse influences. Among these, we should now include the possible inhibitory effect of model overabundance, which may foster individual identity and explain the vocal diversity found in zebra finches and other songbirds.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Analysis of dynamic brain imaging data.

Modern imaging techniques for probing brain function, including functional magnetic resonance imaging, intrinsic and extrinsic contrast optical imaging, and magnetoencephalography, generate large data sets with complex content. In this paper we develop appropriate techniques for analysis and visualization of such imaging data to separate the signal from the noise and characterize the signal. The techniques developed fall into the general category of multivariate time series analysis, and in particular we extensively use the multitaper framework of spectral analysis. We develop specific protocols for the analysis of fMRI, optical imaging, and MEG data, and illustrate the techniques by applications to real data sets generated by these imaging modalities. In general, the analysis protocols involve two distinct stages: "noise" characterization and suppression, and "signal" characterization and visualization. An important general conclusion of our study is the utility of a frequency-based representation, with short, moving analysis windows to account for nonstationarity in the data. Of particular note are 1) the development of a decomposition technique (space-frequency singular value decomposition) that is shown to be a useful means of characterizing the image data, and 2) the development of an algorithm, based on multitaper methods, for the removal of approximately periodic physiological artifacts arising from cardiac and respiratory sources.

Brain↗

PubMed1999

Distributions of singular values for some random matrices.

The singular value decomposition is a matrix decomposition technique widely used in the analysis of multivariate data, such as complex space-time images obtained in both physical and biological systems. In this paper, we examine the distribution of singular values of low-rank matrices corrupted by additive noise. Past studies have been limited to uniform uncorrelated noise. Using diagrammatic and saddle point integration techniques, we extend these results to heterogeneous and correlated noise sources. We also provide perturbative estimates of error bars on the reconstructed low-rank matrix obtained by truncating a singular value decomposition.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1998

Fluctuations and stimulus-induced changes in blood flow observed in individual capillaries in layers 2 through 4 of rat neocortex.

Cortical blood flow at the level of individual capillaries and the coupling of neuronal activity to flow in capillaries are fundamental aspects of homeostasis in the normal and the diseased brain. To probe the dynamics of blood flow at this level, we used two-photon laser scanning microscopy to image the motion of red blood cells (RBCs) in individual capillaries that lie as far as 600 micrometers below the pia mater of primary somatosensory cortex in rat; this depth encompassed the cortical layers with the highest density of neurons and capillaries. We observed that the flow was quite variable and exhibited temporal fluctuations around 0.1 Hz, as well as prolonged stalls and occasional reversals of direction. On average, the speed and flux (cells per unit time) of RBCs covaried linearly at low values of flux, with a linear density of approximately 70 cells per mm, followed by a tendency for the speed to plateau at high values of flux. Thus, both the average velocity and density of RBCs are greater at high values of flux than at low values. Time-locked changes in flow, localized to the appropriate anatomical region of somatosensory cortex, were observed in response to stimulation of either multiple vibrissae or the hindlimb. Although we were able to detect stimulus-induced changes in the flux and speed of RBCs in some single trials, the amplitude of the stimulus-evoked changes in flow were largely masked by basal fluctuations. On average, the flux and the speed of RBCs increased transiently on stimulation, although the linear density of RBCs decreased slightly. These findings are consistent with a stimulus-induced decrease in capillary resistance to flow.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

The role of nonlinear dynamics of the syrinx in the vocalizations of a songbird.

Birdsong is characterized by the modulation of sound properties over a wide image of timescales. Understanding the mechanisms by which the brain organizes this complex temporal behaviour is a central motivation in the study of the song control and learning system. Here we present evidence that, in addition to central neural control, a further level of temporal organization is provided by nonlinear oscillatory dynamics that are intrinsic to the avian vocal organ. A detailed temporal and spectral examination of song of the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) reveals a class of rapid song modulations that are consistent with transitions in the dynamical state of the syrinx. Furthermore, in vitro experiments show that the syrinx can produce a sequence of oscillatory states that are both spectrally and temporally complex in response to the slow variation of respiratory or syringeal parameters. As a consequence, simple variations in a small number of neural signals can result in a complex acoustic sequence.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Visual stimuli induce waves of electrical activity in turtle cortex.

The computations involved in the processing of a visual scene invariably involve the interactions among neurons throughout all of visual cortex. One hypothesis is that the timing of neuronal activity, as well as the amplitude of activity, provides a means to encode features of objects. The experimental data from studies on cat [Gray, C. M., Konig, P., Engel, A. K. & Singer, W. (1989) Nature (London) 338, 334-337] support a view in which only synchronous (no phase lags) activity carries information about the visual scene. In contrast, theoretical studies suggest, on the one hand, the utility of multiple phases within a population of neurons as a means to encode independent visual features and, on the other hand, the likely existence of timing differences solely on the basis of network dynamics. Here we use widefield imaging in conjunction with voltage-sensitive dyes to record electrical activity from the virtually intact, unanesthetized turtle brain. Our data consist of single-trial measurements. We analyze our data in the frequency domain to isolate coherent events that lie in different frequency bands. Low frequency oscillations (<5 Hz) are seen in both ongoing activity and activity induced by visual stimuli. These oscillations propagate parallel to the afferent input. Higher frequency activity, with spectral peaks near 10 and 20 Hz, is seen solely in response to stimulation. This activity consists of plane waves and spiral-like waves, as well as more complex patterns. The plane waves have an average phase gradient of approximately pi/2 radians/mm and propagate orthogonally to the low frequency waves. Our results show that large-scale differences in neuronal timing are present and persistent during visual processing.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

The nature of spatiotemporal changes in cerebral hemodynamics as manifested in functional magnetic resonance imaging.

The nature of changes in rapidly acquired magnetic resonance images of the brain was studied by using a denoising method and spectral techniques optimally suited to short time series. It was found that the stimulus related changes have a complex spatiotemporal structure even for simple visual stimuli. Apart from a low frequency window, the non-stimulus-related changes were found to correspond in detail to either breathing or heartbeat, although these two sources show different patterns of spatial coherence in the image. At low frequencies, oscillations with frequencies around 0.1 Hz were observed, also with nontrivial space-time structure, which are likely to be vasomotor in origin.

Blood Vessels↗