Biomedical subjects

M Moussa

Publications and source records attributed to M Moussa.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2006

[Aneurysmal bone cyst of the cranial base treated by partial resection and calcitonin injection. A case report].

STUDY DESIGN: First published report of a cranial aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC) treated successfully with intralesional injection of calcitonin. OBJECTIVES: To describe a safe and effective treatment method for ABCs of the cranial base. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: ABC is a rare form of dystrophic pseudotumor. Less than 100 cases involving the skull have been reported in the literature, most of them localised in the cranial vault. Cranial base locations are rare and difficult to treat. We selected this treatment after a very rapid recurrence of the lesion following a partial resection. Method. - After a partial resection of a 10 cm petro-occipital ABC that encased the vertebral artery and the lower cranial nerves, an Ommaya reservoir was implanted with a catheter tip inside the ABC. Repeated intralesional injections of calcitonin were performed through the reservoir. RESULTS: Shrinkage of the cyst occurred with disappearance of its heterogeneous cystic content and ossification of its walls. There was no complication and the lesion remains quiescent at a 3 year follow-up. CONCLUSION: We reviewed the pertinent literature concerning percutaneous treatment of ABC. The percutaneous intralesionnal injection of calcitonin was reported in the literature only in 3 publications reporting 9 cases that did not involve the skull. This treatment seems safe and effective, worthy in cranial base ABCs that are difficult to resect completely.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

In vitro comparisons of two cryopreservation techniques for equine embryos: slow-cooling and open pulled straw (OPS) vitrification.

Vitrification using open pulled straw (OPS) has provided encouraging results with embryos from other species. The aim of this study was to compare the survival of 6.5- and 6.75-day-old equine embryos after OPS vitrification and slow-cooling. Eighteen embryos were frozen using a slow-cooling method. Embryos were placed in modified PBS with increasing glycerol concentration (2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% (v/v) 5 min each). Embryos were loaded into 0.25 ml straws then placed in a programmable freezer and subsequently plunged into liquid nitrogen. After thawing, cryoprotectant was removed by five steps with decreasing glycerol and sucrose concentrations. Twenty embryos were vitrified using the OPS method. Embryos were exposed to 7.5% dimethyl-sulfoxide (DMSO)+7.5% ethylene glycol (EG) for 3 min and in 18% DMSO+18% EG+0.4M sucrose for 1 min, loaded in OPS and plunged into liquid nitrogen. After warming, embryos were placed in decreasing sucrose concentrations. All embryos were cultured in synthetic oviduct fluid (SOF) medium for 3h and evaluated using 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining. The percentage of cells entering in S-phase (%SC) was evaluated by incorporation of BrdU. No significant differences were observed for mean diameter, morphological grade and percentage of degenerate embryos after 3h of culture for slow-cooling and OPS methods. The percentage of dead cells per embryo was similar for the two procedures (42+/-6 versus 46+/-9). The percentage of cells entering in S-phase did not differ significantly between the two procedures (27+/-5 versus 26+/-6). OPS vitrification may be as efficient as slow-cooling for the cryopreservation of equine embryos. However, these results should be confirmed by the transfer of OPS vitrified embryos to recipient mares.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Comparison of cell proliferation index in equine and caprine embryos using a modified BrdU incorporation assay.

The measurement of cell proliferation and cell viability using 5'bromo-2'deoxy-uridine (BrdU) labelling has been described in several cell types and species. The aim of this study was to adapt this technique to equine embryos and to compare the index of DNA replication (S-phase) between equine and caprine embryos. Seventeen equine embryos were recovered at day 6.5 post-ovulation and 20 caprine embryos were recovered at day 7 after the onset of estrus. Equine embryos were incubated during 1h at 39 degrees C in PBS containing 1mM of BrdU. Embryos were then treated in 0.05% trypsin during 15 min at 39 degrees C to permeabilise the capsule, and then embryos were rinsed in PBS containing 10% of foetal calf serum. After washing, embryos were immediately fixed in 2.5% paraformaldehyde with 0.3M NaOH during 15 min at ambient temperature. The S-phase was detected by immunocytochemistry technique. In caprine embryos, BrdU was visualised by the same technique but without the trypsin treatment. The percentage of cells (+/-S.E.M.) with BrdU incorporated into newly synthesised DNA strands was significantly higher in equine embryos (74+/-1) than in caprine (38+/-2). Our results demonstrated that BrdU incorporation assay can be used in equine embryos. This assay allows the determination of the proliferation index of live cells and could be used as an additional tool for evaluating the viability of embryos. The high percentage of cells incorporating BrdU during 1h of incubation with BrdU suggests that in comparison with the caprine embryos the cellular activity of proliferation is more intense in equine embryos and suggests that the cellular cycle is shorter in equine embryos.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Evaluation of viability and apoptosis in horse embryos stored under different conditions at 5 degrees C.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the viability (percentage of dead cells) and the incidence of DNA fragmentation of horse embryos after storage in three different media at 5 degrees C for 6 and 24 h. Forty embryos were stored in Emcare Holding Solution for 6 and 24 h, in Hams'F10 or Vigro Holding Plus for 24 h at 5 degrees C (n = 9-10 per group) and 10 embryos were evaluated immediately after collection. First, embryos were stained, immediately after collection or following storage, to detect dead cells (DAPI) and, subsequently, DAPI-stained embryos were fixed and stained to detect DNA fragmentation (TUNEL). Finally, all the fixed embryos were re-stained with DAPI to determine the total number of cells. The percentage of cells stained with both TUNEL and DAPI or TUNEL-only or DAPI-only were determined. The percent of dead cells (DAPI-labelled) per embryo increased with duration of storage, but no differences were detected between the storage media. The percentage of early apoptotic cells (TUNEL+/DAPI-) in fresh and stored embryo for 6 h or 24 h did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). There was a significant correlation between the percentage of cells labelled by TUNEL and DAPI (R = 0.87) (P < 0.001). These results suggest that cooled storage increases cell death but this does not appear to occur by induction of apoptosis and that DAPI staining proves to be a quick and reliable method for assessing embryo viability.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

The seasonal variation in allergic rhinitis and its correlation with outdoor allergens in Kuwait.

BACKGROUND: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is the most common allergic problem in Kuwait. Most of the patients who have either AR or asthma are referred to the Al-Rashed Allergy Center. OBJECTIVE: To determine if there is a seasonal variation in AR in Kuwait and to correlate it with the daily pollen count. METHODS: Information about the new patients referred to the center over a 5-year study period (1996-2000) was extracted from the center's records. The daily pollen count in Kuwait city was obtained from the Air Biology Laboratory. RESULTS: There was a significant seasonal variation with a bimodal increase in the number of patients with AR referred to the center. The main peak in the number of patients occurred in September-October, and there was a smaller peak in April-May. The mean number +/- SD of new patients per month over the 5-year period varied from 87 +/- 32 for December to 367 +/- 104 for September. Similarly, the average daily pollen count varied from 3.7 +/- 1.0 pollens per mm3 in January to 124 +/- 92 in October. There was high correlation between the number of new AR patients and the average total pollen count (Pearson correlation, r=0.77, p<0.001), as well as with Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae (weed) pollens (r=0.75, p<0.001), while there was no correlation between the number of new patients and either tree or grass pollens. CONCLUSION: Seasonal AR occurs during two periods in Kuwait, i.e. September-October and April-May, with September-October being the main season. The rise in AR during late summer in Kuwait is mainly associated with the pollination of Chenopodiaceae species.

Allergens↗

PubMed2003

In vitro and in vivo comparison of Ham's F-10, Emcare holding solution and ViGro holding plus for the cooled storage of equine embryos.

Equine embryos have been successfully transferred after 24h cooled storage in Ham's F-10. The aim of this study was to compare the viability of equine embryos in vitro and in vivo after 6 and 24h cooled storage using three media and to examine the relationship between embryo size and viability after 24h cooled storage. In Experiment 1, the viability of embryos was evaluated using DAPI-staining after 0, 6 or 24h in Ham's F-10, 24h in Emcare embryo holding solution (EHS) or 24h in ViGro holding plus (VHP) (n=10/group). The mean number of dead cells was similar for embryos stored in Ham's F-10, EHS and VHP for 24h. Larger Day 7 embryos appear to withstand 24h cold storage better than small Day 7 embryos. The embryo quality for 24h cold storage was negatively correlated with size. In Experiment 2, 40 embryos were stored (n=20/group) either in Ham's F-10 or in EHS then transferred as pairs in recipient mares. Fifteen of the 20 recipient mares (75%) were pregnant. Out of 17 surviving embryos, 9 embryos (53%) were stored in Ham's F-10 and 8 (47%) in EHS. These results suggest that EHS and VHP offer a good alternative to Ham's F-10 for 24h cooled storage of equine embryos and that larger embryos may have a better viability after 24h of cooled storage than smaller embryos.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Involvement of cytokines in eating disorders: a critical review of the human literature.

A number of findings from clinical and animal studies indicate that pro-inflammatory cytokines may play roles in eating disorders. The measurement of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNFalpha), which are known to decrease food intake, provides highly variable data from which firm conclusions cannot be drawn. In most of the longitudinal studies where pro-inflammatory cytokines have been shown to be impaired in anorexia or bulimia nervosa, a return to normal values was observed after renutrition. However these findings do not exclude the possibility that pro-inflammatory cytokines might be overproduced in specific brain areas and act locally without concomitantly increased serum or immune production. It was also pointed out that the production of the major type-1 cytokines (especially IL-2) was depressed in anorexia nervosa. It remains unclear whether this is due to undernutrition or to a specific underlying cause common to eating disorders. The impaired cytokine profile observed in eating disorders could be related to several factors including impaired nutrition, psychopathological and neuroendocrine factors. More particular attention should be devoted to the deregulation of the anti/pro-inflammatory balance. Deregulation of the cytokine network may be responsible for medical complications in eating disorder patients who are afflicted with chronic underweight.

Cytokines↗

PubMed2002

Low density lipoproteins extracted from hen egg yolk by an easy method: cryoprotective effect on frozen-thawed bull semen.

Hen egg yolk is widely used as a cryoprotective agent in semen freezing extenders in order to protect the spermatozoa against cold shock. The protective action of yolk is largely presumed to be due to low density lipoproteins (LDL). In recent years, arguments concerning the presence of cryoprotective antagonists in egg yolk, have reinforced interest in the use of only the LDL extracted from egg yolk in the extenders. However, current methods of LDL purification do not support the use of LDL in commercial extenders because they offer a poor recovery rate. Consequently, we have developed an easy method to extract LDL from egg yolk. Several concentrations of purified LDL (between 2.5 and 20%, w/v) were tested in freezing extenders for bull semen, and compared with commercial extenders. Our extraction method reached 97% purity and about 67% yield, and is easily reproducible on an industrial scale. Analysis of sperm motility showed that the motility and characteristics of spermatozoa movement were improved with LDL in the extender, as compared to a commercial extender containing egg yolk. The optimum LDL concentration in the extender was 8%. In conclusion, we propose that an extender containing LDL extracted from egg yolk could be used as cryoprotective media with a better efficiency than present commercial extenders.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Prostate targeting: PSP94 gene promoter/enhancer region directed prostate tissue-specific expression in a transgenic mouse prostate cancer model.

To date, only a few prostate-specific vector genes have been tested for prostate targeting in gene therapy of prostate cancer (CaP). Current clinical trials of gene therapy of CaP utilize the only two available vector genes with a combination of a rat probasin promoter and a human PSA promoter sequence in an adenovirus vector to target CaP. There is an urgent need to establish additional vector gene systems to sustain and propagate the current research. Since PSP94 (prostate secretory protein of 94 amino acids) is one of the three most abundant proteins secreted from the human prostate and is generally considered to be prostate tissue-specific in both human and rodents, we performed a transgenic experiment to assess the promoter/enhancer region of PSP94 gene-directed prostate targeting. Firstly, a series of progressive deletion mutants of a 3.84 kb PSP94 gene promoter/enhancer region (including parts of the intron 1 sequence) linked with a reporter LacZ gene was constructed and assessed in vitro in cell culture. Next, transgenic mice were generated with two transgene constructs using the SV40 early region (Tag oncogene) as a selection marker. PSP94 gene promoter/enhancer region-directed SV40 Tag expression specifically in the mouse was demonstrated in three breeding lines (A, B, C, n = 374) by immunohistochemistry staining of Tag expression. Specific targeting to the prostate in the PSP94 gene-directed transgenic CaP model was characterized histologically by correlation of SV40 Tag-induced tumorigenesis (tumor grading) with puberty and age (10-32 weeks). Prostatic hyperplasia was observed as early as 10 weeks of age, with subsequent emergence of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) and eventually high grade carcinoma in the prostate. The PSP94 transgenic mouse CaP model was further characterized by its tumor progression and metastatic tendency at 20 weeks of age and also by its responsiveness and refractoriness to androgen manipulation. This study indicates that the PSP94 gene promoter/enhancer has the potential for prostate specific targeting and may ultimately be of use in gene therapy of CaP.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Plasmodium falciparum induces a Th1/Th2 disequilibrium, favoring the Th1-type pathway, in the human placenta.

During pregnancy, a local and systemic Th2 bias of maternal immunity favors Th1-dependent infections such as malaria. This study measured cytokines secreted in cultures of chorionic villi, placental blood cells (PBC), and serum in term placentas from 88 malaria-infected and -noninfected Cameroon women. Interleukin (IL)--2 and --4 were consistently low; IL-1 beta, IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and transforming growth factor (TGF)--beta 2 were highest in villi cultures. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)--alpha, interferon (IFN)--gamma, and IL-10 were highest in PBC cultures. Malaria placental infection increased Th1-type cytokines, whereas Th2-type cytokines and TGF-beta 2 were unchanged. Addition of lipopolysaccharide or infected erythrocytes to cultures increased TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, and IL-10 secretions but not those of IFN-gamma and IL-4. Overall, Plasmodium falciparum induced a placental immune response involving both Th1- and Th2-type cell activation. Although the Th1 pathway was favored, IL-10 secretion was also increased, and this increase should be effective in protecting the placenta by controlling the negative effects of Th1 cytokines on pregnancy.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Advantages of a P-element construct containing MtnA sequences for the identification of patterning and cell determination genes in Drosophila melanogaster.

The P[MTW] transposon carries a functional MtnA (metallothionein) gene and a miniwhite reporter gene. When P[MTW] was transformed into Drosophila, many lines were found to show position-dependent expression patterns of the miniwhite or the MtnA transgene. Identification of several of the target genes indicated that this construct behaves as an enhancer or silencer trap. For instance, expression of at least one reporter transgene was shown to correlate with that of the endogenous gene in the case of insertions in Ultrabithorax, four-jointed, and the iroquois complex. The frequency of patterns recovered with P[MTW] is higher than that reported for P[LacW], suggesting that P[MTW] has unusual properties. The possibility of biased insertion of P[MTW] was assayed by screening a sample of 66 MTW lines for modifiers of the extra sex comb phenotype caused by a hypomorphic allele of polyhomeotic. Seven modifiers were recovered, which could be ranked in two classes: genes involved in leg morphogenesis (including four-jointed and spitz), and genes of the Polycomb- or trithorax-Group, including trithorax and batman, a new gene which encodes a product with a BTB/POZ domain. Taken together, these results indicate that P[MTW] allows the tagging of patterning and cell determination genes, and thus provides a useful tool for identifying new developmental functions.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Expression of Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3, an interleukin-12 p40-related molecule, throughout human pregnancy: involvement of syncytiotrophoblasts and extravillous trophoblasts.

In human pregnancy, trophoblasts are the only cells of fetal origin in direct contact with the maternal immune system: syncytiotrophoblasts are in contact with maternal blood, whereas extravillous trophoblasts are in contact with numerous maternal uterine natural killer (NK) cells. Therefore, trophoblasts are thought to play a key role in maternal tolerance to the semiallogeneic fetus, in part through cytokine production and NK cell interaction. Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) encodes a soluble hematopoietin receptor related to the p40 subunit of interleukin-12. Previous studies indicated that EBI3 is expressed in the spleen and tonsils, and at high levels in full-term placenta. To investigate further EBI3 expression throughout human pregnancy, we generated monoclonal antibodies specific for EBI3 and developed an EBI3 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Immunohistochemical experiments with EBI3 monoclonal antibody on first-, second-, and third-trimester placental tissues demonstrated that EBI3 was expressed throughout pregnancy by syncytiotrophoblasts and extravillous trophoblasts (cytotrophoblast cell columns, interstitial trophoblasts, multinucleated giant cells, and trophoblasts of the chorion laeve). EBI3 expression was also induced during in vitro differentiation of trophoblast cell lines. In addition, large amounts of secreted EBI3 were detected in explant cultures from first-trimester and term placentae. Consistent with these data, EBI3 levels were strongly up-regulated in sera from pregnant women and gradually increased with gestational age. These data, together with the finding that EBI3 peptide is presented by HLA-G, suggest that EBI3 is an important immunomodulator in the fetal-maternal relationship, possibly involved in NK cell regulation.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2001

Expression of beta chemokines in explants and trophoblasts from early and term human placentae.

PROBLEM: Implantation of human embryo requires expression of inflammatory cytokines and local attraction of T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Chemokines are chemoattractants for these cells in classical inflammation. We speculated that they could also be involved in implantation. METHOD OF STUDY: We assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry the presence of three classical beta chemokines Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 (MIP1)alpha, MIP1beta and Regulated upon activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES) in cultures of placental villi or isolated trophoblasts derived from human first trimester and term placenta. RESULTS: Explant culture assays were positive for these three chemokines, with important quantitative variations between individuals. Half of the highly purified trophoblasts cultures were found by ELISA and RT-PCR to secrete in vitro MIP1alpha and MIP1beta. RANTES was never detected by ELISA in trophoblasts cultures, albeit we could detect a low amount of messenger RNA. Immunohistochemistry experiments show that Hofbauer cells and the trophoblast layer are a secretion site of MIP1beta in term placenta, and that cytotrophoblasts are able to secrete this chemokine in early placenta. CONCLUSION: Human placenta is a site of secretion of chemokines that could be involved in establishment of pregnancy.

Chemokine CCL4↗

PubMed2001

Placental cytokine and chemokine production in HIV-1-infected women: trophoblast cells show a different pattern compared to cells from HIV-negative women.

In utero transmission of HIV-1 has been demonstrated and may account for around 10-20% of all materno-fetal HIV-1 transmission. The possible routes for such transmission are transannexial or transplacental. In both cases, the microenvironment (cytokines and chemokines) at the placental interface could be an important regulatory factor in viral transmission. We therefore performed explant cultures of placental villi, and isolated purified trophoblasts, from term placentae obtained from HIV-1-seropositive and HIV-1-seronegative women in order to assess and compare the cytokine and chemokine secretion profiles using ELISA and semiquantitative RT-PCR. No major differences could be seen in the secretions of cytokines and chemokines at the level of whole placental tissue in HIV-1-positive and HIV-1-negative women. However, variations were observed in the expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines from trophoblastic cells, depending on the status of HIV-1 infection of the mothers but not the babies, all of which remained uninfected. The significance of these data is discussed.

Cytokines↗

PubMed2001

An empirical malaria distribution map for West Africa.

The objective of this study was to produce a malaria distribution map that would constitute a useful tool for development and health planners in West Africa. The recently created continental database of malaria survey results (MARA/ARMA 1998) provides the opportunity for producing empirical models and maps of malaria distribution at a regional and eventually at a continental level. This paper reports on the mapping of malaria distribution for sub-Saharan West Africa based on these data. The strategy was to undertake a spatial statistical analysis of malaria parasite prevalence in relation to those potential bio-physical environmental factors involved in the distribution of malaria transmission intensity which are readily available at any map location. The resulting model was then used to predict parasite prevalence for the whole of West Africa. We also produced estimates of the proportion of population of each country in the region exposed to various categories of risk to show the impact that malaria is having on individual countries. The data represent a very large sample of children in West Africa. It constitutes a first attempt to produce a malaria risk map of the West African region, based entirely on malariometric data. We anticipate that it will provide useful additional guidance to control programme managers, and that it can be refined once sufficient additional data become available.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Evaluation of caudal anaesthesia performed in conscious ex-premature infants for inguinal herniotomies.

Ex-premature infants, before 45 weeks postconceptional age, are at high-risk of apnoea after surgery. General anaesthesia increases the risk of apnoea. We evaluated the tolerance and the efficiency of caudal anaesthesia performed in 25 consecutive conscious ex-premature infants for inguinal herniotomies. N2O/O2 and EMLA cream are used to facilitate caudal puncture. Anaesthesia procedure, patient comfort and complications following the 24 postoperative hours were studied. We report good anaesthesia conditions without compromising the baby's comfort and few perioperative complications. Only two infants with a prior history of apnoea or bronchopulmonary dysplasia had apnoea during and after surgery. A total spinal anaesthesia was the major complication in one infant and prolonged surgery requiring general anaesthesia was the main limitation of this technique in another child. The principal advantage of the procedure is to facilitate and simplify the postoperative management of the babies. The anaesthetic technique does not alter surgical conditions. Caudal epidural anaesthesia performed in awake high-risk preterm infants is beneficial for these infants but requires experienced operators.

Anesthesia, Caudal↗

PubMed2001

Bilateral developmental dysplasia of the hip: asymmetric outcome in the older child.

Fifteen patients who were 2 years of age or older and had bilateral developmental dysplasia of the hip were reviewed. Thirty hips had required open reduction combined with osteotomy on the pelvic or femoral side or both as necessary. The results were assessed according to McKay and Severin classifications, and complications including asymmetric outcome were recorded. An asymmetric outcome existed if the clinical or radiologic result for the contralateral hip was more than one unit difference or a leg length discrepancy of more than 1 cm was observed. Before surgery, there was no significant difference clinically and radiologically between the right and left hips for all patients. Surgical procedures required for both hips also were symmetric in 14 (93%) patients. However, asymmetric outcome occurred in four (27%) patients, three of whom were older than 5 years. An asymmetric outcome as defined is a potential risk after surgical treatment of bilateral developmental dysplasia of the hip in children who are older than 5 years.

Child↗

PubMed2001

Rodent PSP94 gene expression is more specific to the dorsolateral prostate and less sensitive to androgen ablation than probasin.

To date, the rodent ventral prostate (VP) has been the focus of many studies on androgen action, less attention has been directed to the lateral prostate (LP) and the dorsal prostate (DP). The rodent VP has no clear homologous counterpart in the human prostate. The rodent LP and DP is the only prostate lobe comparable to the peripheral zone of the human prostate, where hormone-induced prostate cancer mainly occurs. To explore its utility for prostate targeting, we have studied the gene expression of PSP94 with rat probasin (rPB), a gene commonly used for prostate targeting in prostate cancer research and a gene typically responsive to androgen regulation. Firstly, we demonstrated PSP94 gene transcription being more specific to the LP and DP lobes than rPB, where rPB RNA was detected in the LP and DP and other lobes at different levels. Secondly, we found that PSP94 gene transcription decreased relatively slowly in response to androgen deprivation but recovered rapidly in response to testosterone replacement after complete ablation of PSP94 transcription. In the VP, gene transcripts of rPB were specifically responsive to androgen deprivation; however, they responded relatively slowly in the LP and DP. RNase protection experiments indicated that the slow response was not due to abnormal persistence of PSP94 messenger RNA specifically in the DP and LP lobes in comparison with rPB. Thirdly, Western blot analysis revealed that both PSP94 and rPB expression is specific to the LP and DP at the protein level, exhibiting slow responses to testosterone replacement after castration. We conclude that PSP94 gene expression at the transcriptional level is more specific to the LP and DP than rPB and thus less sensitive to androgen ablation. This may have clinical implications for strategies to target the prostate in cancer therapy.

Androgen-Binding Protein↗