Biomedical subjects

M Lin

Publications and source records attributed to M Lin.

At least 145 records · Page 8Linked to original sources

PubMed1999

Use of recombinant flagellin protein as a tracer antigen in a fluorescence polarization assay for diagnosis of leptospirosis.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the usefulness of a recombinant flagellar protein, FlaB, of Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona in the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis by the fluorescence polarization assay (FPA). The recombinant protein FlaB was purified to homogeneity by a combination of nickel-nitriloacetic acid agarose chromatography, electrophoresis, and electroelution. Purified FlaB was labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC). Western blotting was performed by using bovine sera with microscopic agglutination test (MAT) titers of antibodies against L. interrogans serovar pomona and L. bergpetersenii serovars hardjo and sejroe to confirm the antigenicity of FlaB. Western blot analysis demonstrated that labeled as well as unlabeled FlaB was recognized by the positive sera tested, indicating the broad serovar cross-reactivity of this protein. It also indicated that labeling with FITC did not affect the antigenicity. By using FITC-labeled FlaB as a tracer antigen, a homogeneous FPA was developed to detect antileptospiral antibodies in bovine sera. A population of 208 MAT-positive and 208 MAT-negative serum samples was tested by FPA. The FPA cutoff was determined by receiver operating characteristic analysis. By FPA, 83. 7% of the MAT-positive serum samples were positive and 81.2% of the MAT-negative serum samples were negative. Compared to the results of MAT, the positive predictive value of FPA was 81.7% and the negative predictive value of FPA was 83.3%. The FPA is a simple and rapid technique for the detection of anti-Leptospira antibodies.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Iron primes hepatic macrophages for NF-kappaB activation in alcoholic liver injury.

NF-kappaB activation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in cultured hepatic macrophages (HM) may be abrogated by pretreatment of cells with a lipophilic iron chelator, 1,2-dimethyl-3-hydroxypyrid-4-one (L1, deferiprone), suggesting a role for iron in this molecular event [M. Lin, M., R. A. Rippe, O. Niemelä, G. Brittenham, and H. Tsukamoto, Am. J. Physiol. 272 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 35): G1355-G1364, 1997]. To ascertain the relevance in vivo of this hypothesis, HM from an experimental model of alcoholic liver injury were examined for the relationship between nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activation and iron storage. HM showed a significant increase in nonheme iron concentration (+70%), accompanied by enhanced generation of electron paramagnetic resonance-detected radicals (+200%), NF-kappaB activation (+100%), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (+150%) and macrophage inflammatory protein-1 (+280%) mRNA induction. Treatment of the cells ex vivo with L1 normalized all these parameters. HM content of ferritin protein, ferritin L chain mRNA, and hemeoxygenase-1 mRNA and splenic content of nonheme iron were increased, suggesting enhanced heme turnover as a cause of the increased iron storage and NF-kappaB activation. To test this possibility, increased iron content in HM was reproduced in vitro by phagocytosis of heat-treated red blood cells. Treatment caused a 40% increase in nonheme iron concentration and accentuated LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation twofold. Both effects could be abolished by pretreatment of cells with zinc protoporphyrin, a hemeoxygenase inhibitor. To extend this observation, animals were splenectomized before 9-wk alcohol feeding. Splenectomy resulted in further increments in HM nonheme iron storage (+60%) and NF-kappaB activation (+90%) and mononuclear cell infiltration (+450%), particularly around the iron-loaded HM in alcohol-fed animals. These results support the pivotal role of heme-derived iron in priming HM for NF-kappaB activation and expression of proinflammatory genes in alcoholic liver injury.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

A newly identified nonsecretor allele of the human histo-blood group alpha(1,2)fucosyltransferase gene (FUT2).

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The human Secretor alpha(1, 2)fucosyltransferase gene determines the ABH secretor status and influences the Lewis phenotype of an individual. Studies were carried out on the Lewis (a+b-) nonsecretors of different groups indigenous to Taiwan to demonstrate their se genotypes. METHODS: The Lewis phenotype of the blood samples was determined by a microplate method. The se genotypes of the individuals with the Lewis (a+b-) phenotype were analyzed by a polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method designed for the se alleles reported previously. PCR and cloning techniques were used to determine the coding sequence of the novel se gene. RESULTS: A new se allele, se685, with a three-nucleotide deletion of GTGGT to GT in the coding region of nucleotides 685 through 689 was identified in a Le (a+b-) nonsecretor from the Ami tribe indigenous to Taiwan. The deletion predicts the loss of the amino acid Val230 in the corresponding secretor enzyme's C-terminal segment. The distribution of the se685 allele in the Ami tribe was further verified by PCR-RFLP analysis. CONCLUSION: The Se gene exhibits heterogeneity with some Se alleles being common but others displaying a unique distribution in different ethnic populations. The newly identified se685 allele seems to exist only in the Ami tribe indigenous to Taiwan.

ABO Blood-Group System↗

PubMed1999

Targeted mutation of plasma phospholipid transfer protein gene markedly reduces high-density lipoprotein levels.

It has been proposed that the plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) facilitates the transfer of phospholipids and cholesterol from triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) into high-density lipoproteins (HDL). To evaluate the in vivo role of PLTP in lipoprotein metabolism, we used homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells and produced mice with no PLTP gene expression. Analysis of plasma of F2 homozygous PLTP-/- mice showed complete loss of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, sphingomyelin, and partial loss of free cholesterol transfer activities. Moreover, the in vivo transfer of [3H]phosphatidylcholine ether from very-low-density proteins (VLDL) to HDL was abolished in PLTP-/- mice. On a chow diet, PLTP-/- mice showed marked decreases in HDL phospholipid (60%), cholesterol (65%), and apo AI (85%), but no significant change in non-HDL lipid or apo B levels, compared with wild-type littermates. On a high-fat diet, HDL levels were similarly decreased, but there was also an increase in VLDL and LDL phospholipids (210%), free cholesterol (60%), and cholesteryl ester (40%) without change in apo B levels, suggesting accumulation of surface components of TRL. Vesicular lipoproteins were shown by negative-stain electron microscopy of the free cholesterol- and phospholipid-enriched IDL/LDL fraction. Thus, PLTP is the major factor facilitating transfer of VLDL phospholipid into HDL. Reduced plasma PLTP activity causes markedly decreased HDL lipid and apoprotein, demonstrating the importance of transfer of surface components of TRL in the maintenance of HDL levels. Vesicular lipoproteins accumulating in PLTP-/- mice on a high-fat diet could influence the development of atherosclerosis.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Complementary deoxyribonucleic acid cloning and enzymatic characterization of a novel 17beta/3alpha-hydroxysteroid/retinoid short chain dehydrogenase/reductase.

17Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17betaHSDs) convert androgens and estrogens between their active and inactive forms, whereas retinol dehydrogenases catalyze the conversion between retinol and retinal. Retinol dehydrogenases function in the visual cycle, in the generation of the hormone retinoic acid, and some also act on androgens. Here we report cloning and expression of a complementary DNA that encodes a new mouse liver microsomal member of the short chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily and its enzymatic characterization, i.e. 17betaHSD9. Although 17betaHSD9 shares 88% amino acid identity with rat 17betaHSD6, its closest homolog, the two differ in substrate specificity. In contrast to other 17betaHSD, 17betaHSD9 has nearly equivalent activities as a 17betaHSD (with estradiol approximately = adiol) and as a 3alphaHSD (with adiol approximately = androsterone). It also recognizes retinol as substrate and represents in part the NAD+-dependent liver microsomal dehydrogenase that uses unbound retinol, but not retinol complexed with cellular retinol-binding protein. Thus, this enzyme has catalytic properties that overlap with two subgroups of SDR, 17betaHSD and retinol dehydrogenases. Inactivation of estrogen and a variety of androgens seems to be its most probable function. Because of its apparent inability to access retinol bound with cellular retinol-binding protein, a function in the pathway of retinoic acid biosynthesis seems less obvious. These data provide additional insight into the enzymology of estrogen, androgen, and retinoid metabolism and illustrate how closely related members of the SDR superfamily can have strikingly different substrate specificities.

17-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗

PubMed1999

A 33 kDa molecular marker of sperm acrosome differentiation and maturation in the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii).

This study was undertaken to identify potential molecular markers of acrosomal biogenesis and post-testicular maturation in marsupials, using the tammar wallaby as a model species. A two-step sperm extraction procedure yielded two protein extracts of apparent acrosomal origin and a tail extract. The extracts were analysed by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions. Several prominent polypeptide bands (45, 38 and 33 kDa) appeared common to both acrosomal extracts. Antiserum raised against the 33 kDa polypeptide from the inner acrosomal membrane matrix (IAMM) extract showed immunoreactivity with 45, 38 and 33 kDa polypeptides in both acrosomal extracts, indicating that the 33 kDa polypeptide was related to the proteins in the 45 and 38 kDa bands. Therefore, the antiserum was used as a molecular probe. Indirect immuno-fluorescence indicated that the acrosome was the major location of the 33 kDa polypeptide. This contention was confirmed by ultrastructural study: immunogold labelling indicated that the 33 kDa polypeptide associated with acrosomal matrix components throughout acrosomal development in the testes and throughout post-testicular maturation in the epididymis. The label clearly delineated the changing morphology of the maturing marsupial acrosome. This is the first study to use immunocytochemical techniques to chart testicular and post-testicular development of any sperm organelle in a marsupial. As a result of this study, a 33 kDa molecular marker of marsupial acrosome differentiation and maturation has been identified. It may be possible to chart similar events in other marsupial species and identify opportunities for manipulating fertility.

Acrosome↗

PubMed1999

Quantitative study of the variability of hepatic iron concentrations.

BACKGROUND: The hepatic iron concentration (HIC) is widely used in clinical practice and in research; however, data on the variability of HIC among biopsy sites are limited. One aim of the present study was to determine the variability of HIC within both healthy and cirrhotic livers. METHODS: Using colorimetric methods, we determined HIC in multiple large (microtome) and small (biopsy-sized) paraffin-embedded samples in 11 resected livers with end-stage cirrhosis. HIC was also measured in multiple fresh samples taken within 5 mm of each other ("local" samples) and taken at sites 3-5 cm apart ("remote" samples) from six livers with end-stage cirrhosis and two healthy autopsy livers. RESULTS: The within-organ SD of HIC was 13-1553 microg/g (CV, 3.6-55%) for microtome samples and 60-2851 microg/g (CV, 15-73%) for biopsy-sized samples. High variability of HIC was associated with mild to moderate iron overload, because the HIC SD increased with increasing mean HIC (P <0.002). Livers with mean HIC >1000 microg/g exhibited significant biological variability in HIC between sites separated by 3-5 cm (remote sites; P <0.05). The SD was larger for biopsy-sized samples than for microtome samples (P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Ideally, multiple hepatic sites would be sampled to obtain a representative mean HIC.

Biopsy↗

PubMed1999

[Missense mutations of exons 14 and 18 of Wilson's disease gene in Chinese patients].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the characteristics of mutations of exons 14 and 18 of Wilson's disease (WD) gene in Chinese patients. METHODS: The subjects of study included 60 unrelated normal controls and 44 unrelated WD patients. Genomic DNA was prepared from peripheral blood leukocytes by a salt-out method. Mutations of exons 14 and 18 in these subjects were screened by polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) and further confirmed by sequencing. RESULTS: One patient was homozygous for Arg1041Pro mutation of exon 14 and another patient was heterozygous for Asn1270Ser mutation of exon 18. CONCLUSION: The mutations of exons 14 and 18 of WD gene in Chinese patients were confirmed by sequencing for the first time in China. Arg1041Pro was identified as a novel missense mutation. In addition, an Asn1270Ser, previously described mutation, was detected in this study. But exons 14 and 18 are not the hot point mutations of WD gene in Chinese patients.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

UV Resonance Raman Spectroscopic Identification of Titanium Atoms in the Framework of TS-1 Zeolite.

Framework titanium atoms in titanium-substituted silicalite (TS-1) can be identified by UV resonance Raman spectroscopy since the associated Raman bands at 1125, 530, and 490 cm(-1) (see figure) are observed only when the charge transfer transition associated with the framework Ti atoms is excited by a UV laser. Thus, framework Ti atoms can be distinguished from nonframework Ti atoms and other defect sites. This method can be applicable to identifying transition metal atoms in the frameworks of other molecular sieves.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1999

The effect of diclofenac sodium on the initial comfort of RGP contact lenses: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a pilot study to assess the effect of 0.1% diclofenac sodium eyedrops on the initial comfort of rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact lenses. METHODS: A double-masked, placebo-controlled, crossover trial was performed on 20 unadapted subjects. In Phase I, subjects used either 0.1% diclofenac or placebo eyedrops four times per day for 3 days before RGP lenses were dispensed. Contact lenses were inserted on Day 4 and worn for 8 continuous hours. Eyedrops were used twice during the 8-hour period. Ocular symptoms were graded on a visual analog scale at six points during the day. Visual acuity and slitlamp examinations were performed at the same six study points. After a 2-week wash-out period, subjects received the opposite treatment in Phase II, following the same protocol used in Phase I. RESULTS: The treatment effect was tested using the Mainland-Gart chi-square test. There was no statistically significant treatment effect (chi-square = 0.20, p = 0.653) on patient symptoms. Biomicroscopy findings were analyzed and, likewise, showed no significant treatment effect (chi-square = 2.10, p = 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: Data from this pilot study showed no statistically significant reduction in symptoms or signs with diclofenac eyedrops.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

[Mitochondrial tRNA(leu(UUR)) gene mutation and the decreased activity of cytochrome C oxidase in preeclampsia].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of mitochondrial tRNA(leu(UUR)) gene mutation at nuecleotide 3243 and the activity of cytochrome C oxidase on the pathogenesis of pregnancy induced hypertension(PIH). METHODS: 57 cases of PIH and 60 normal pregnancy women were detected of tRNA(leu(UUR)) nt3243A-->G mutation with the method of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Cytochrome C oxidase activity was measured by the rate of cyanide-sensitive oxidation of reduced cytochrome C using luminosity photographer. RESULTS: Cytochrome C oxidase activity was significantly lower in the PIH group than that of controls. The mitochondrial DNA mutation at position 3243 was not found in any of the cases. CONCLUSION: These results suggested that the decreased activity of cytochrome C oxidase might impair the energy production, leading to the mitochondrial dysfunction and placental dysfunction in PIH patients. Mitochondrial dysfunction may be involved in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. The particular mutation of mitochondrial DNA may not be the common contributor of PIH.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

[Estimation and clinical significance of serum soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors in patients with acute leukemia].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the levels of serum soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors (sTNFRs) and the relationships with clinical situation, chemotherapeutic effects and TNF alpha level in acute leukemia (AL) patients. METHODS: Serum levels of sTNFRs and TNF alpha were measured by ELISA. Six parameters which might influence therapeutic effects were analyzed by logistic regression. RESULTS: 1. Serum levels of sTNFR I and sTNFR II in 31 untreated AL patients were significantly higher than those in controls(P < 0.001 and < 0.005, respectively) and in bone marrow remission (BMR) AL patients (P < 0.005 and < 0.05, respectively). The levels of sTNFR I and sTNFR II in 11 relapsed/refractory AL patients were significantly higher than those in controls(P < 0.001 and < 0.05, respectively), but were not different from those in untreated AL patients. 2. Serum levels of sTNFR I in untreated ALL patients were significantly higher than those in ANLL patients (P < 0.05). 3. High levels of serum sTNFR I were more common in patients with high leukocyte count(> or = 100 x 10(9)/L) and high levels of serum sTNFR II were more common in patients with splenomegaly. Levels of the two sTNFRs positively correlated with blasts in peripheral blood (P < 0.001 and < 0.05, respectively). 4. The level of TNF alpha in 31 untreated AL patients significantly correlated with the level of sTNFR I (r = 0.440, P < 0.05). 5. The BMR rate was higher in those serum sTNFR I level < 2.0 micrograms/L than in those > or = 2.0 micrograms/L(P < 0.05). 6. Of the six parameters which might influence AL therapeutic effects, only sTNFR I < 2.0 micrograms/L was predictive. CONCLUSION: High levels of serum sTNFRs in AL patients might be derived from leukemic cells and predicted an adverse prognosis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

[A clinical study on vaccine of Mycobacterium vaccae in treating pulmonary tuberculosis].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of vaccine of Mycobacterium vaccae on cell-mediated immunity and on treating patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. METHODS: Seventy cases of pulmonary tuberculosis with smear positive and initial treatment were classified randomly into group I (35 cases) and group II (35 cases), receiving 2HRZS/4HR and 2HRZS/4HR plus vaccine of Mycobacterium vaccae regimens respectively. Thirty-one multi-drug resistant pulmonary tuberculosis cases were classified into group III, receiving 4 - 6 sensitive antituberculous drugs and vaccine of Mycobacterium vaccae. Improvement of clinical symptoms, resolution of pulmonary lesions, negative conversion of sputum and changes of immunological functions were observed. RESULTS: No significant difference in improvement of symptoms was found in group I and group II (P > 0.05), and the improvement rate of clinical symptoms in group III was found more than 50%. X-ray resolution rates in 4th month were 83% and 89%, and cavity reducing rates 40% and 50% respectively in group I and group II, and no significant differences were found (P > 0.05). X-ray resolution rate was 29%, cavity reducing rate 7% and no deteriorated case was found in group III. Sputum negative conversion rates in 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th month were 23%, 51%, 83% and 97% respectively in group I, while 31%, 77%, 89% and 100% in group II, and 3%, 16%, 29% and 32% in group III. Significant difference was found between group I and group II in sputum negative conversion rate in 2nd month after treatment (P < 0.05). After treatment, values of lymphocyte transformation test (LTT), CD(3), CD(4) and CD(4)/CD(8) of the above 3 groups were all higher than that before the treatment (P < 0.05), level of tumor necrosis factor decreased in group II and IL-2, IL-6 increased in group III. CONCLUSIONS: Vaccine of Mycobacterium vaccae is a good immunotherapy preparation, which promotes sputum negative conversion and activation of cell-mediated immunity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

[The experimental research of purification and character of cultured retinal ganglion cell].

OBJECTIVE: To establish a cell line and purification model of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in vitro. METHOD: RGCs from Sprague Dawley neonatal rats (postnatal 1 - 3 days) were cultured in basal medium eagle (BME) basal medium. The growth regularity of RGCs in vitro was observed under phase-contrast microscope. RGCs were purified by Thy 1.1 with FITC antibody and detected under fluorescent microscope and phase-contrast microscope. RESULTS: Higher density of retinal cells and tectal extract facilitate cultured RGCs to survive. The purification rate of retinal ganglion cells in the experiment arrived at 95 percent. CONCLUSION: Cytokine and trophic factors from other cells in the retina and tectal extract can promote RGCs to survive, and they can be purified by Thy 1.1 antibody.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

[Determination of TNF-alpha and endotoxemia in patients with chronic liver diseases].

The incidence of endotoxemia in 153 patients with different liver diseases was determined by Limulus Lysaite Test(LLT). Comparative studies were carried out on the levels of tumour necrosis factor-alpha(TNF-alpha) between positive and negative endotoxemia in patients suffering from chronic liver diseases. At the same time, 58 patients of positive endotoxemia were divided into two groups--bifidobiogen group (38 cases) and control group(20 cases). The patients in bifidobiogen group were treated mainly with daily administration of bifidobiogen for 1 month besides general liver--protection therapy and the bifidobiogen was not given to the control group. The results showed that: 1. Incidence of endotoxemia in 153 patients suffering from various types of liver diseases was 65.36%; the highest rate was found in the patients with severe hepatitis; 2. The TNF-alpha level was obviously increased in the patients of positive endotoxemia; 3. The total efficacy in bifidobiogen group was significantly higher than that in control group. The data suggest that chronic liver diseases are generally complicated with endotoxemia, and TNF-alpha plays an important role in the pathogenesis of endotoxemia. The serum endotoxin level may be reduced after the treatment with bifidobiogen.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

[Psychological aspects of patients with burning mouth syndrome: an investigation of personality, psychopathological profiles and social life background stress].

OBJECTIVE: To know the psychosocial background of patients with burning mouth syndrome (BMS) in China. METHODS: In this study, 30 patients with BMS and 30 normal subjects of control group were evaluated for their personality, psychopathological profile and existence of recent life events. All subjects were required to complete the EPQ questionnaire, the SCL-90 questionnaire and a Life Event Scale, and chi-square test analysis of variance and rank sum test were used in this study. RESULTS: The personality of introversion and instability was common in BMS group. The scores of 9 emotional factors and negative life events were higher than that of the control group significantly. CONCLUSION: BMS may be a series of psychological disorder and somatic discomfort caused by stresses of social life events on the people with special personality.

Burning Mouth Syndrome↗

PubMed1999

[A pilot study on malaria control by using a new strategy of combining strengthening infection source treatment and health education in mountainous areas of Hainan province].

AIM: To explore a new malaria control strategy that fits current epiodemiological condition and coincides with modern medicine model and the principle of cost-benefit. METHODS: The new strategy highlights the risk villages and risk population as the focal point and integrates health education with behavioral intervention. The main anti-malaria measures consists of carrying out health education in risk villages, giving mass drug administrations in risk population staying overnight in the mountain, following up malaria cases for implementing radical cure, but without using traditional residual spraying or impregnating bednets with insecticides. RESULTS: After having adopted the new strategy and taken the control measures, the people's knowledge about malaria increased to a higher level and the indices of malaria reduced to a lower level. The rate of bednet-using in the population was increased from 26.8% to 72.6%. The annual parasite incidence (API) of malaria was declined from 3.5% in 1994 to 1.1% in 1996 and 0.8% in 1997, and the API of falciparum malaria was declined from 1.0% to 0.3% and 0.3% respectively in the townships at the same time. The parasite rate(PR) of malaria was declined from 7.2% in May, 1995 to 2.1% in November, 1996 and 1.2% in October, 1997 and the PR of falciparum malaria was declined from 1.2% in May, 1995 to 0.1% in October, 1997. The proportion of villages without malaria cases was increased from 18.6% in 1994 to 54.2% in 1997, and the number of risk villages with a malaria incidence above 5% was reduced from 14 to 2 at the same time. The ratio of cost/benefit was 1:2.4 in 1995-1996 and 1:4.4 in 1997, showing a better economic benefit. CONCLUSION: The expectant result has been obtained, thereby providing new experience for the malaria control in the mountainous areas of Hainan Province.

China↗

PubMed1999

The preliminary study of glucocorticoid receptor gene in Chinese patients with glucocorticoid-induced glaucoma.

BACKGROUND: To study the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the associated gene regulation in the pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced glaucoma (GIG) in Chinese patients. METHODS: The trabecular cells of normal individuals and patients with GIG were cultured in vitro. By using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), gene fragments on GR DNA binding sites of trabecular cells were amplified. The product was detected by gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: The trabecular cells were cultured successfully in normal individuals and patients with GIG in vitro. A single PCR product was obtained in both two groups with the same size of 545 base pairs. CONCLUSION: There is not any difference in gene on the GR DNA binding sites between normal individuals and patients with GIG. The results suggest the difference in mRNA or other functional genes.

Binding Sites↗