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M B Grisham

Publications and source records attributed to M B Grisham.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2002

Polynitroxylated starch/TPL attenuates cachexia and increased epithelial permeability associated with TNBS colitis.

Free radicals play an important role in the initiation and progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Therefore, the reduction or elimination of adverse oxidant effects can provide novel therapy for IBD. Here, the antioxidant capacity and protective effects of a new class of chemically modified hetastarch (polynitroxyl starch, or PNS) plus 4-hydroxyl-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl (Tempol or TPL) (PNS/TPL) were assessed in a model of colitis. The superoxide scavenging capacity of PNS/TPL-that is, the inhibition of the reduction of cytochrome c in the presence of xanthine/xanthine oxidase (X/XO)-was evaluated in vitro. The effects of PNS/TPL on X/XO-induced neutrophil endothelial adhesion in vitro were investigated. Also, this study tested the protection produced by PNS/TPL in a mouse model of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis. PNS/TPL was given intravenously immediately before (< 30 min) and intraperitoneally at 24 and 72 hr after TNBS induction. The body weight and survival rate of the mice were checked daily. Colonic mucosal damage was assessed on the 7th day by measuring intestinal permeability to Evans blue (EB) in vivo. The ability of PNS to reoxidize bioreduced TPL was documented by whole-body electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) detection. We found that PNS or TPL exhibits superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity, with approximately 2% of SOD activity occurring on a molar basis. The endothelial-neutrophil adherence induced by X/XO was significantly inhibited by PNS/TPL but not by TPL alone. PNS/TPL protected against cachexia and mortality, both usually induced by TNBS. Epithelial permeability was increased significantly in TNBS mice but was ameliorated by the administration of PNS/TPL. In conclusion, PNS/TPL may be beneficial in the treatment or prevention of IBD through its antioxidant effects, which inhibit oxidant-mediated leukocyte adhesion and injury to endothelial cells.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Regulation of murine intestinal inflammation by reactive metabolites of oxygen and nitrogen: divergent roles of superoxide and nitric oxide.

Several reports have implicated reactive oxygen and nitrogen metabolites (RONS) in the initiation and/or progression of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). We have investigated the role of three key RONS-metabolizing enzymes (inducible nitric oxide synthase [iNOS], superoxide dismutase [SOD], nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate [NADPH] oxidase) in a murine model of IBD. Mice genetically deficient ((-/-)) in either iNOS or the p47phox subunit of NADPH oxidase, transgenic (Tg) mice that overexpress SOD, and their respective wild-type (WT) littermates were fed dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water for 7 days to induce colitis. In addition, the specific iNOS inhibitor 1400W was used in DSS-treated WT and p47phox(-/-) mice. WT mice responded to DSS feeding with progressive weight loss, bloody stools, elevated serum NO(X) and colonic mucosal injury with neutrophil infiltration. Both the onset and severity of colitis were significantly attenuated in iNOS(-/-) and 1400W-treated WT mice. While the responses to DSS did not differ between WT and p47phox(-/-) mice, enhanced protection was noted in 1400W-treated p47phox(-/-) mice. Interestingly, SOD(Tg) mice exhibited more severe colitis than their WT littermates. These findings reveal divergent roles for superoxide and iNOS-derived NO in intestinal inflammation.

Amidines↗
PubMed2001

Myoglobin-catalyzed tyrosine nitration: no need for peroxynitrite.

The nitration of tyrosine residues in protein to yield 3-nitrotyrosine derivatives has been suggested to represent a specific footprint for peroxynitrite formation in vivo. However, recent studies suggest that certain hemoproteins such as peroxidases catalyze the H(2)O(2)-dependent nitration of tyrosine to yield 3-nitrotyrosine in a peroxynitrite-independent reaction. Because 3-nitrotyrosine has been shown to be present in the postischemic myocardium, we wished to assess the ability of myoglobin to catalyze the nitration of tyrosine in vitro. We found that myoglobin catalyzed the oxidation of nitrite and promoted the nitration of tyrosine. Both nitrite oxidation and tyrosine nitration were H(2)O(2)-dependent and required the formation of ferryl (Fe(+4)) myoglobin. In addition, nitrite oxidation and tyrosine nitration were pH-dependent with a pH optimum of approximately 6.0. Taken together, these data suggest that the acidic pH and low oxygen tension produced during myocardial ischemia will facilitate myoglobin-catalyzed, peroxyntrite-independent formation of 3-nitrotyrosine.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

TNF-alpha induced endothelial MAdCAM-1 expression is regulated by exogenous, not endogenous nitric oxide.

BACKGROUND: MAdCAM-1 is an adhesion molecule expressed in Peyer's patches and lymphoid tissues which is mobilized by cytokines like TNF-alpha and is a major determinant of lymphocyte trafficking to the gut in human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It has been suggested that both reactive oxygen and nitrogen metabolites participate in regulating adhesion molecule expression in response to TNF-alpha. METHODS: To examine how exogenous and endogenous sources of NO modulate MAdCAM-1 induction by TNF-alpha, we pre-treated mouse lymphatic endothelial cells with either long or short acting NO donors prior to TNF-alpha-stimulation, and measured MAdCAM-1 induction at 24 h. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: DETA-NO, a long-acting NO donor, and SperNO, a rapid releasing NO donor both inhibited TNF-alpha-stimulated MAdCAM-1 expression in a concentration dependent manner. Both NO donors also reduced a4b7-dependent lymphocyte endothelial adhesion. Inhibition of endogenous NO production by either L-NAME, a non-selective NOS inhibitor, or by 1400 w, a selective iNOS inhibitor failed to induce, or potentiate TNF-alpha regulated MAdCAM-1 expression. CONCLUSIONS: Exogenous NO donors may be beneficial in the treatment of IBD, while endogenous nitric oxide synthases may be less effective in controlling adhesion molecule expression in response to cytokines.

Amidines↗
PubMed2001

Enhanced post-ischemic liver injury in iNOS-deficient mice: a cautionary note.

The objective of this study was to assess the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in ischemia- and reperfusion (I/R)-induced liver injury. We found that partial hepatic ischemia involving 70% of the liver resulted in a time-dependent increase in serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels at 1-6 h following reperfusion. Liver injury at 1, 3, and 6 h post-ischemia was not due to the infiltration of neutrophils as assessed by tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and histopathology. iNOS-deficient mice subjected to the same duration of ischemia and reperfusion showed dramatic and significant increases in liver injury at 3 but not 6 h following reperfusion compared to their wild type controls. Paradoxically, iNOS mRNA expression was not detected in the livers of wild type mice at any point during the reperfusion period and pharmacological inhibition of iNOS using L-N(6)(iminoethyl)-lysine (L-NIL) did not exacerbate post-ischemic liver injury at any time post-reperfusion. These data suggest that iNOS deficiency produces unanticipated genetic alterations that renders these mice more sensitive to liver I/R-induced injury.

Alanine Transaminase↗
PubMed2001

Reaction of superoxide and nitric oxide with peroxynitrite. Implications for peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation reactions in vivo.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)/ONOOH), the product of the diffusion-limited reaction of nitric oxide (*NO) with superoxide (O(-*)(2)), has been implicated as an important mediator of tissue injury during conditions associated with enhanced *NO and O(-*)(2) production. Although several groups of investigators have demonstrated substantial oxidizing and cytotoxic activities of chemically synthesized peroxynitrite, others have proposed that the relative rates of *NO and production may be critical in determining the reactivity of peroxynitrite formed in situ (Miles, A. M., Bohle, D. S., Glassbrenner, P. A., Hansert, B., Wink, D. A., and Grisham, M. B. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 40-47). In the present study, we examined the mechanisms by which excess O(-*)(2) or *NO production inhibits peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation reactions. Peroxynitrite was generated in situ by the co-addition of a chemical source of *NO, spermineNONOate, and an enzymatic source of O(-*)(2), xanthine oxidase, with either hypoxanthine or lumazine as a substrate. We found that the oxidation of the model compound dihydrorhodamine by peroxynitrite occurred via the free radical intermediates OH and NO(2), formed during the spontaneous decomposition of peroxynitrite and not via direct reaction with peroxynitrite. The inhibitory effect of excess O(-*)(2) on the oxidation of dihydrorhodamine could not be ascribed to the accumulation of the peroxynitrite scavenger urate produced from the oxidation of hypoxanthine by xanthine oxidase. A biphasic oxidation profile was also observed upon oxidation of NADH by the simultaneous generation of *NO and O(-*)(2). Conversely, the oxidation of glutathione, which occurs via direct reaction with peroxynitrite, was not affected by excess production of *NO. We conclude that the oxidative processes initiated by the free radical intermediates formed from the decomposition of peroxynitrite are inhibited by excess production of *NO or O(-*)(2), whereas oxidative pathways involving a direct reaction with peroxynitrite are not altered. The physiological implications of these findings are discussed.

Catalase↗
PubMed2001

Role of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 in indomethacin-induced ileitis.

Adhesion molecules have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases. We investigated their expression and contribution to leukocyte recruitment in experimental intestinal inflammation. Ileitis was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by two injections of indomethacin (7.5 mg/kg), given 24 h apart. Endothelial intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression was quantified using the dual radiolabeled monoclonal antibody technique and Mac-1 (CD11b/CD18) expression on leukocytes by flow cytometry. Leukocyte infiltration was monitored by tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. The first indomethacin injection induced a time- and site-dependent increase of ICAM-1 expression in ileal mucosa and muscularis. The second injection resulted in a reduction of ICAM-1 expression below constitutive levels whereas Mac-1 was upregulated. MPO changes paralleled lesion development over 48 h. ICAM-1 and MPO values were correlated for the first 24 h. Immunoneutralization of either ICAM-1 or Mac-1 attenuated mucosal injury. We conclude that (i) indomethacin-induced ileitis is associated with a temporally disassociated upregulation of ICAM-1 and (ii) despite a reduction in ICAM-1 after 24 h, ICAM-1, in concert with Mac-1, contributes to mucosal injury and leukocyte infiltration elicited by indomethacin.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Role of appendix and spleen in experimental colitis.

There is growing clinical evidence suggesting that certain secondary lymphoid tissues (e.g., appendix and spleen) contribute to the initiation and/or perpetuation of ulcerative colitis. In this study, the importance of secondary lymphoid tissues in inducing colitis was assessed experimentally by removing the spleen and/or appendix (or sham operation) prior to inducing colitis in mice. Feeding 2.5% dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) in drinking water over 7 days induced colitis. Clinical disease activity was assessed based on weight loss, stool consistency, and presence of blood in stools. Additional measurements included white blood cell count and hematocrit, and myeloperoxidase activity (MPO) in colon samples. Colonic injury was assessed by histology and computerized image analysis. DSS treatment in sham-operated mice produced colitis associated with weight loss, bloody diarrhea, and mucosal ulceration. Clinical assessment of DSS-treated mice subjected to appendectomy or combined appendectomy/splenectomy exhibited a delayed onset and course of disease activity. Histomorphologic examination revealed significantly lower damage scores and a reduction in ulcerated mucosal surface area. Colonic MPO activity, which correlated with tissue injury and disease activity, was lowest in appendectomized mice. No beneficial effects of splenectomy were observed after 7 days of colitis. These findings support the hypothesis that appendicular lymphoid tissue, but not the spleen, contributes to the development of colitis.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Interferon-gamma and interleukin-10 reciprocally regulate endothelial junction integrity and barrier function.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with Th1/Th2 cytokine dysregulation, leukocyte extravasation, and tissue edema, but the mechanisms for cytokine-mediated vascular dysfunction are not understood. To investigate how cytokines might control edema in IBD, we determined vascular permeability and IFN-gamma expression in two models of murine colitis: SCID mice reconstituted with CD45RB(high T-lymphocytes (CD45RB(high)/SCID mice), and interleukin-10 gene deficient (IL-10(-/-)) mice. We also investigated the in vitro effects of IFN-gamma and IL-10 on human endothelial solute barrier and junction protein expression. Vascular permeability in CD45RB(high)/SCID and IL-10(-/-) mice was quantified using tissue (131)I-IgG accumulation. The IFN-gamma message was quantified using the ribonuclease protection assay. Endothelial barrier integrity in vitro was measured by transmonolayer electrical resistance, and junctional proteins were examined by immunoblotting and fluorescence microscopy. Both CD45RB(high)/SCID and IL-10(-/-) mice exhibit enhanced colonic microvascular leakage and IFN-gamma message levels compared to their respective controls. In vitro, IFN-gamma also reduced endothelial barrier (monolayer electrical resistance, increased albumin permeability) and reduced tight junction (occludin) expression and staining. These effects were reversed by pretreatment of monolayers with IL-10. Therefore, in vivo IFN-gamma and IL-10 may modulate microvascular leakage in IBD partly by controlling the expression of intestinal endothelial tight junctional proteins.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Immunological basis of inflammatory bowel disease: role of the microcirculation.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine and/or colon of unknown etiology in which patients suffer from severe diarrhea, rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, fever, and weight loss. Active episodes of IBD are characterized by vasodilation, venocongestion, edema, infiltration of large numbers of inflammatory cells, and erosions and ulcerations of the bowel. It is becoming increasingly apparent that chronic gut inflammation may result from a dysregulated immune response toward components of the normal intestinal flora, resulting in a sustained overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines and mediators. Many of these Th1 and macrophage-derived cytokines and lipid metabolites are known to activate microvascular endothelial cells, thereby promoting leukocyte recruitment into the intestinal interstitium. This review discusses the basic immune mechanisms involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses in the gut and describes how a breakdown in this protective response initiates chronic gut inflammation.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Role of nitric oxide in inflammation.

A number of laboratories have sought to elucidate the role of nitric oxide (NO) in both acute and chronic inflammatory diseases. It is now well appreciated that NO can influence many aspects of the inflammatory cascade ranging from its own expression to recruitment of leucocytes to the effected tissue. With the advent of mice selectively deficient in the various isoforms of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), the role that NO may play in various disease states can now be examined in vivo. One such syndrome that has gained much attention in recent years is ischaemia and reperfusion-induced tissue injury. Ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is an important clinical consideration in situations such as transplantation, trauma, liver or bowel resection and haemorrhagic shock. A hallmark of I/R is the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the reperfusion phase and it is thought that the production of ROS mediate much of the post-ischaemic tissue injury. This review will examine the current state of knowledge regarding the regulatory mechanisms by which NO can influence various aspects of the inflammatory cascade as well as its role in a model of I/R injury in vivo.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Glucocorticoids and IL-10, but not 6-MP, 5-ASA or sulfasalazine block endothelial expression of MAdCAM-1: implications for inflammatory bowel disease therapy.

BACKGROUND: Enhanced MAdCAM-1 (mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1) expression is associated with the aetiology of inflammatory bowel disease, but little is known about MAdCAM-1: regulation, or how inflammatory bowel disease therapies modulate MAdCAM-1. AIM: To examine how agents currently used to treat inflammatory bowel disease affect MAdCAM-1: induced by tnf-alpha in an in vitro model of inflammatory bowel disease. METHODS: Endothelial monolayers were pretreated with dexamethasone (DEX): 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), sulfasalazine or interleukin-10: (IL-10: prior to TNF-alpha (20 ng/mL), and MAdCAM-1: measured by Western blotting, RT-PCR, EMSA and lymphocyte adhesion assays. RESULTS: MAdCAM-1: was induced dose- and time-dependently by TNF-alpha on endothelial cells. Either dexamethasone or IL-10: reduced TNF-alpha-induced MAdCAM-1: protein, mRNA and lymphocyte adhesion. However, neither 5-ASA, sulfasalazine nor 6-MP blocked MAdCAM-1 induction. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that dexamethasone or IL-10 can exert therapeutic activity in inflammatory bowel disease through MAdCAM-1 inhibition. 5-ASA, sulfasalazine and 6-MP, while beneficial in inflammatory bowel disease, do not directly control MAdCAM-1, and are beneficial through inhibition of other inflammatory processes.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Mechanisms of the antioxidant effects of nitric oxide.

The Janus face of nitric oxide (NO) has prompted a debate as to whether NO plays a deleterious or protective role in tissue injury. There are a number of reactive nitrogen oxide species, such as N2O3 and ONOO-, that can alter critical cellular components under high local concentrations of NO. However, NO can also abate the oxidation chemistry mediated by reactive oxygen species such as H2O2 and O2- that occurs at physiological levels of NO. In addition to the antioxidant chemistry, NO protects against cell death mediated by H2O2, alkylhydroperoxides, and xanthine oxidase. The attenuation of metal/peroxide oxidative chemistry, as well as lipid peroxidation, appears to be the major chemical mechanisms by which NO may limit oxidative injury to mammalian cells. In addition to these chemical and biochemical properties, NO can modulate cellular and physiological processes to limit oxidative injury, limiting processes such as leukocyte adhesion. This review will address these aspects of the chemical biology of this multifaceted free radical and explore the beneficial effect of NO against oxidative stress.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Regulation and distribution of MAdCAM-1 in endothelial cells in vitro.

Mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) is a 60-kDa endothelial cell adhesion glycoprotein that regulates lymphocyte trafficking to Peyer's patches and lymph nodes. Although it is widely agreed that MAdCAM-1 induction is involved in chronic gut inflammation, few studies have investigated regulation of MAdCAM-1 expression. We used two endothelial lines [bEND.3 (brain) and SVEC (high endothelium)] to study the signal paths that regulate MAdCAM-1 expression in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha using RT-PCR, blotting, adhesion, and immunofluorescence. TNF-alpha induced both MAdCAM-1 mRNA and protein in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This induction was tyrosine kinase (TK), p42/44, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B/poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) dependent. Because MAdCAM-1 is regulated via MAPKs, we examined mitogen/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK)-1/2 activation in SVEC. We found that MEK-1/2 is activated by TNF-alpha within minutes and is dependent on TK and p42/44 MAPKs. Similarly, TNF-alpha activated NF-kappa B through TK, p42/44, p38 MAPKs, and PARP pathways in SVEC cells. MAdCAM-1 was also shown to be frequently distributed to endothelial junctions both in vitro and in vivo. Cytokines like TNF-alpha stimulate MAdCAM-1 in high endothelium via TK, p38, p42/22 MAPKs, and NF-kappa B/PARP. MAdCAM-1 expression requires NF-kappa B translocation through both direct p42/44 and indirect p38 MAPK pathways in high endothelial cells.

Alkaloids↗
PubMed2001

MAdCAM mediates lymphocyte-endothelial cell adhesion in a murine model of chronic colitis.

Previous studies have revealed that the expression of several endothelial cell adhesion molecules [e.g., intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAdCAM-1)] is dramatically elevated in the chronically inflamed colonic vasculature of severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice reconstituted with congenic CD4+, CD45RB(high) T lymphocytes. The objective of this study was to define the contribution of different endothelial cell adhesion molecules to the lymphocyte-endothelial cell (L/E) adhesion observed in the colonic microvasculature in this experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease. Fluorescently labeled T lymphocytes, isolated from spleens of normal BALB/C mice, were injected intravenously into SCID mice that had been reconstituted with CD4+, CD45RB(high) T lymphocytes either before (3 wk after reconstitution) or after (7 wk postreconstitution) the onset of clinical signs of colitis (i.e., diarrhea, loss of body wt). Intravital fluorescence microscopy was used to quantify L/E adhesion in different-sized venules of the colonic submucosa during the development of colitis. L/E adhesion was noted in some segments of the vasculature in precolitic SCID mice (3 wk after reconstitution) but not in similar-sized vessels of control (wild type and SCID) mice. L/E adhesion was observed in a greater proportion of venules and occurred with greater intensity in the mucosa of colitic mice (7 wk postreconstitution). Pretreatment with a blocking monoclonal antibody against MAdCAM-1, but not ICAM-1 or VCAM-1, significantly and profoundly reduced L/E adhesion in colitic mice. Immunohistochemical staining also revealed the localization of T cells on colonic endothelial cells expressing MAdCAM-1. These findings indicate that MAdCAM-1 is largely responsible for recruiting T lymphocytes into inflamed colonic tissue.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Selected contribution: Effects of gender on reduced-size liver ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Hepatic resection with concomitant periods of ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) is a common occurrence in resectional surgery as well as reduced-size liver transplantation (e.g., split liver or living donor transplantation). However, the I/R induced by these types of surgical manipulations may impair liver regeneration, ultimately leading to liver failure. The objectives of the study were to develop a murine model of reduced-size liver I/R and assess the role of gender in this model of hepatocellular injury. We found that 100% of female mice survived the surgery indefinitely, whereas all male mice had greater initial liver injury and died within 5 days after surgery. The protective effect observed in females appeared to be due to ovarian 17beta-estradiol, as ovariectomy of females or administration of a selective estrogen antagonist to female mice resulted in enhanced liver injury and greater mortality following reduced-size liver I/R. Conversely, 17beta-estradiol-treated male mice exhibited less hepatocellular damage and survived indefinitely. Taken together, these data demonstrate an estrogen-mediated protective pathway(s) that limits or attenuates hepatocellular injury induced by reduced-size liver I/R.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Brain endothelial adhesion molecule expression in experimental colitis.

OBJECTIVES: 1) To determine if endothelial expression of adhesion molecules involved in leukocyte recruitment is increased in the brain and other organs in four different models of experimental colitis, and 2) to investigate whether leukocyte infiltration occurs in the brain of colitic animals. METHODS: Endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression was quantified, using the dual radiolabeled antibody technique in rats with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis, in mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, in SCID mice reconstituted with CD45RBhigh T-cells, and in IL-10-/- mice. Leukocyte infiltration in the brain of TNBS-induced colitic rats was assessed by myeloperoxidase activity and immunohistochemical staining with anti-CD45 monoclonal antibody. RESULTS: Marked upregulation of brain endothelial VCAM-1 (2- to 5.5-fold) was consistently found in colitic animals in the four models studied. Brain VCAM-1 strongly correlated with colon VCAM-1 and colon weight. By contrast, upregulation of brain ICAM-1 in colitic animals was only observed in the CD45RBhigh transfer (3-fold) and the TNBS-induced (1.5-fold models). Heart and muscle VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 were not upregulated in colitic animals in the majority of models studied. There was no leukocyte infiltration into the brain of TNBS-induced colitic rats. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates a marked and specific upregulation of endothelial VCAM-1 in the brain of colitic animals. This activation of cerebral endothelial cells was not associated with an infiltration of leukocytes into brain tissue.

Animals↗