Biomedical subjects

L Wang

Publications and source records attributed to L Wang.

At least 271 records · Page 15Linked to original sources

PubMed2002

Salt stress induces programmed cell death in prokaryotic organism Anabaena.

AIMS: Our main interest is to check if programmed cell death (PCD) can occur in prokaryotic algae and if the morphological and biochemical features of PCD are conserved. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using TUNEL labelling, fluorescence and light microscopy and DNA gel electrophoresis, we found that cell death with features similar to those in metazoan PCD could be induced in different Anabaena strains after exposure to univalent-cation salts at moderate concentration. These features included specific DNA fragmentation, cytoplasmic vacuolation, and the progressive disorganization, fragmentation and subsequent autolysis of the cell corpse. Further analyses of cell viability and proteinase activity revealed that increased protease activities, decreased DNA content, and loss of plasmalemma integrity were related to the PCD process. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that like PCD in eukaryotes, PCD in Anabaena is an active process, and is an adaptation to adverse environments. The features of PCD shared between eukaryotes and Anabaena suggest that PCD mechanisms are conserved during evolution. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results will contribute greatly to our understanding of PCD origin and evolution, and are potentially useful in controlling the deluge of algae in some lakes.

Anabaena↗

PubMed2002

Control of extracellular matrix homeostasis of normal cartilage by a TGFbeta autocrine pathway. Validation of flow cytometry as a tool to study chondrocyte metabolism in vitro.

OBJECTIVE: To validate flow cytometry as an experimental technique for the study of the homeostasis of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of human articular cartilage. METHODS: Given the established insights in the relation between the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta type II Receptor (TGF-betaRII)/TGF-beta auto/paracrine pathway, the intracellular levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their natural inhibitors (TIMPs), and the accumulation of ECM molecules in the ECM of articular cartilage, this metabolic pathway was used as a reference model to fulfill the objective. Chondrocytes were liberated from visually intact femoral condyle cartilage and cultured in gelled agarose to maintain their differentiated phenotype. After 2 weeks of culture, the chondrocytes were isolated from the agarose and flow cytometry was used to analyse the expression of TGF-betaRII on the plasmamembrane, the expression of TGFbeta1, MMP-1, MMP-3, TIMP-1 and TIMP-3 inside the cells, as well as the amounts of aggrecan, type II collagen and hyaluronan in the cell-associated matrix (CAM). The expression of the different substances was analysed with flow cytometry and reported as mean fluorescence intensity (MFI), which is due to the binding of FITC-labeled antibodies to their specific antigens. In addition, the effects of exogenous TGFbeta1 on the expression of these proteins was investigated on chondrocytes cultured in serum-free media. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) was performed to evaluate the MMP-1, MMP-3, TIMP-1 and MMP-1/TIMP-1 complex in the culture medium collected after the last 3 days of the culture period. The correlations between the data were analysed with the Spearman's test. RESULTS: Exogenous TGF-beta1 increased the accumulation of aggrecan and hyaluronan in the CAM of chondrocytes and down-regulated the intracellular levels of MMP-1 and -3. TIMP-1 and -3 were increased after exposure to TGF-beta1. Baseline expression of TGF-betaRII on the plasmamembrane of normal human articular chondrocytes significantly correlated with the intracellular levels of TGFbeta1, TIMP-1 and TIMP-3. TGFbeta1 was correlated with TIMP-1, TIMP-3 and MMP-1. Aggrecan in the CAM was inversely correlated with the ratio of MMP-1 to TIMPs. In addition, there were correlations between TIMP-1 and TIMP-3, aggrecan and hyaluronan. ELISA also revealed the correlation between MMP-1 and TIMP-1 secreted by the chondrocytes into the nutrient medium. MMP-1/TIMP-1 complex was hardly found in the medium. CONCLUSIONS: Some aspects of ECM metabolism of normal cartilage were evaluated by flow cytometry. Chondrocytes from normal human cartilage, when cultured in gelled agarose, showed correlations between the expression of TGF-betaRII/TGF-beta1 and the intracellular levels of TIMPs, indicating that TGF-beta autocrine pathway may contribute to homeostasis of the ECM in the normal cartilage. The relations between MMPs, TIMPs and the ECM molecules support that a physiological balance between MMPs and TIMPs results in a well-controlled matrix turnover in normal cartilage.

Aggrecans↗

PubMed2002

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia developing in the course of chronic myeloid leukaemia.

Both chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) are rare illnesses. Their co-existence has been previously reported, typically with CML following CLL. We report to our knowledge the first case of CLL developing some years after initial diagnosis of Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome positive CML. We provide molecular evidence that CLL arose in a Ph negative clone. The implications of the findings are discussed.

Benzamides↗

PubMed2002

Characterization of the human prostaglandin H synthase 1 gene (PTGS1): exclusion by genetic linkage analysis as a second modifier gene in familial thrombosis.

Genetic evidence from a large Vermont kindred indicates that an unknown gene promotes thrombosis when inherited in conjunction with type I protein C deficiency. Cyclooxygenase-1 [prostaglandin H synthase 1 gene (PTGS1)] was tested as a plausible candidate for the unknown gene because of its role in primary hemostasis. The complete sequence of PTGS1 (25 638 nucleotides) was determined from a 37 kb human genomic cosmid clone to characterize intronic regions and subsequently to allow the search for mutations by direct sequencing of genomic DNA. Northern blot analysis confirms usage of a newly described distal poly-adenylation signal. Short tandem repeat (STR) sequences found in intron 2 and the 3' flanking region were developed as new genetic markers for PTGS1. The position of PTGS1 was refined on the CHLC chromosome 9 linkage map using the new markers scored in four Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain families and multipoint linkage analysis. Direct sequencing of DNA from members of the Vermont kindred led to the discovery of two new single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that give rise to non-conservative amino acid changes in the signal peptide (Arg(8) to Trp and Pro(17) to Leu) of cyclooxygenase-1. Linkage analysis of the SNP and STR markers indicated that PTGS1 is not the interacting gene associated with an increased incidence of thrombosis in the Vermont kindred.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed2002

The search for synonyms among streptomycetes by using SDS-PAGE of whole-cell proteins. Emendation of the species Streptomyces aurantiacus, Streptomyces cacaoi subsp. cacaoi, Streptomyces caeruleus and Streptomyces violaceus.

A collection of 93 Streptomyces reference strains were investigated using SDS-PAGE of whole-cell proteins. Computer-assisted numerical analysis revealed 24 clusters encompassing strains with very similar protein profiles. Five of them grouped several type strains with visually identical patterns. DNA-DNA hybridizations revealed homology values higher than 70% among these type strains. According to the current species concept, it is proposed that Streptomyces albosporeus subsp. albosporeus LMG 19403T is considered as a subjective synonym of Streptomyces aurantiacus LMG 19358T, that Streptomyces aminophilus LMG 19319T is considered as a subjective synonym of Streptomyces cacaoi subsp. cacaoi LMG 19320T, that Streptomyces niveus LMG 19395T and Streptomyces spheroides LMG 19392T are considered as subjective synonyms of Streptomyces caeruleus LMG 19399T, and that Streptomyces violatus LMG 19397T is considered as a subjective synonym of Streptomyces violaceus LMG 19360T.

Bacterial Proteins↗

PubMed2002

Determination of embedded layer properties using adaptive time-frequency domain analysis.

A general model for determination of the complete set of acoustical and geometrical properties of an isotropic layer embedded between isotropic or anisotropic multilayered solids is developed. These properties include density, longitudinal and shear elastic moduli, layer thickness, and loss factors, simultaneously determined from two measurements, one at normal and one at oblique incidence. The inversion model is an extension of the method proposed by Lavrentyev and Rokhlin [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 102, 3467 (1997)] which is applicable to thick substrates. In this new method, the inversion model mimics an experiment by using the same time-domain gating of the signal reflected from the embedded layer. This allows application of this method to layered solids when reflections from different layers overlap in the time domain. The sensitivity of the method, its stability against data scatter, and the effect of the oblique incident angle are evaluated. The effect of plane-wave approximation versus beam approximation in the inverse algorithm is discussed. Experimental results are given to demonstrate examples of adhesive layer property reconstruction.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Floquet wave homogenization of periodic anisotropic media.

A dynamic homogenization method based on Floquet wave theory is developed. The theory is based on the equivalency within the homogenization domain of Floquet waves in a periodic anisotropic medium and plane waves in a dispersive homogeneous anisotropic medium. A simple procedure has been developed to estimate analytically critical angles and the upper frequency bound of this homogenization domain. Using this method, the frequency dependent effective elastic constants are obtained and examples for [0/90] and [0/45/90/-45] composites are given. By comparison with an exact theory, it is shown that the time domain signal propagation in a periodic laminate is well described by the Floquet wave homogenization theory in the homogenization domain. It is also shown that in the static limit the results are identical to those calculated by static homogenization theory (the generalized method of cells). The potential applications of the method are discussed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Stable recursive algorithm for elastic wave propagation in layered anisotropic media: stiffness matrix method.

An efficient recursive algorithm, the stiffness matrix method, has been developed for wave propagation in multilayered generally anisotropic media. This algorithm has the computational efficiency and simplicity of the standard transfer matrix method and is unconditionally computationally stable for high frequency and layer thickness. In this algorithm, the stiffness (compliance) matrix is calculated for each layer and recursively applied to generate a stiffness (compliance) matrix for a layered system. Next, reflection and transmission coefficients are calculated for layered media bounded by liquid or solid semispaces. The results show that the method is stable for arbitrary number and thickness of layers and the computation time is proportional to the number of layers. It is shown both numerically and analytically that for a thick structure the solution approaches the solution for a semispace. This algorithm is easily adaptable to laminates with periodicity, such as multiangle lay-up composites. The repetition and symmetry of the unit cell are naturally incorporated in the recursive scheme. As an example the angle beam time domain pulse reflections from fluid-loaded multilayered composites have been computed and compared with experiment. Based on this method, characteristic equations for Lamb waves and Floquet waves in periodic media have also been determined.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Floquet wave ultrasonic method for determination of single ply moduli in multidirectional composites.

An inversion method based on Floquet wave velocity in a periodic medium has been introduced to determine the single ply elastic moduli of a multi-ply composite. The stability of this algorithm is demonstrated by numerical simulation. The applicability of the plane wave approximation to the velocity measurement in the double-through-transmission self-reference method has been analyzed using a time-domain beam model. It shows that the finite width of the transmitter affects only the amplitudes of the signals and has almost no effect on the time delay. Using this method, the ply moduli for a multiply composite have been experimentally determined. While the paper focuses on elastic constant reconstruction from phase velocity measurements by the self-reference double-through-transmission method, the reconstruction methodology is also applicable to assessment of data collected by other methods.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

A meta-analysis of the effect of Bacille Calmette Guérin vaccination on tuberculin skin test measurements.

BACKGROUND: The accurate diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is an important component of any tuberculosis control programme and depends largely on tuberculin skin testing. The appropriate interpretation of skin test results requires knowledge of the possible confounding factors such as previous BCG vaccination. Uncertainty about the effect of BCG vaccination on tuberculin skin testing and the strength with which recommendations are made to individual patients regarding treatment of LTBI have identified a need to analyse the available data on the effect of BCG on skin testing. A meta-analysis of the evidence for the effect of BCG vaccination on tuberculin skin testing in subjects without active tuberculosis was therefore performed. METHODS: Medline was searched for English language articles published from 1966 to 1999 using the key words "BCG vaccine", "tuberculin test/PPD", and "skin testing". Bibliographies of relevant articles were reviewed for additional studies that may have been missed in the Medline search. Articles were considered for inclusion in the meta-analysis if they had recorded tuberculin skin test results in subjects who had received BCG vaccination more than 5 years previously and had a concurrent control group. Only prospective studies were considered. The geographical location, number of participants, type of BCG vaccine used, type of tuberculin skin test performed, and the results of the tuberculin skin test were extracted. RESULTS: The abstracts and titles of 980 articles were identified, 370 full text articles were reviewed, and 26 articles were included in the final analysis. Patients who had received BCG vaccination were more likely to have a positive skin test (5 TU PPD: relative risk (RR) 2.12 (95% confidence interval (CI)1.50 to 3.00); 2 TU RT23: 2.65 [corrected] (95% CI 1.83 to 3.85). The effect of BCG vaccination on PPD skin test results was less after 15 years. Positive skin tests with indurations of >15 mm are more likely to be the result of tuberculous infection than of BCG vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: In subjects without active tuberculosis, immunisation with BCG significantly increases the likelihood of a positive tuberculin skin test. The interpretation of the skin test therefore needs to be made in the individual clinical context and with evaluation of other risk factors for infection. The size of the induration should also be considered when making recommendations for treatment of latent infection.

BCG Vaccine↗

PubMed2002

Expression of prolactin receptors and regulation of cell proliferation by prolactin, corticotropin-releasing factor, and corticosterone in a neuroblastoma cell line.

The aetiology of neuroblastoma remains obscure, although a number of neuropeptides have been implicated in its pathogenesis. Using the mouse neuroblastoma cell line Neuro2a as a model, we have investigated the mitogenic actions of prolactin (PRL) and two hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal stress axis hormones, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and corticosterone. Using established polyclonal PRL receptor antisera with immunofluorescence cytochemistry, we show that the Neuro2a cells possess immunoreactive forms of both the long and short forms of the receptor. PRL and CRF were effective as mitogens in Neuro2a cell cultures, where a 10(-7) M concentration of PRL or CRF elicited a two-fold increase in the numbers of cells after 72 h (p < 0.0001). Corticosterone, however, attenuated their proliferation. These data suggest that prolactin may act to increase the proliferation and regulation of neuroblastomas and that the effects of PRL may be modified by hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal hormones.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Leptin mediates the parathyroid hormone-related protein paracrine stimulation of fetal lung maturation.

Developing rat lung lipofibroblasts express leptin beginning on embryonic day (E) 17, increasing 7- to 10-fold by E20. Leptin and its receptor are expressed mutually exclusively by fetal lung fibroblasts and type II cells, suggesting a paracrine signaling "loop." This hypothesized mechanism is supported by the following experimental data: 1) leptin stimulates the de novo synthesis of surfactant phospholipid by both fetal rat type II cells (400% x 100 ng(-1) x ml(-1) x 24 h(-1)) and adult human airway epithelial cells (85% x 100 ng(-1) x 24 h(-1)); 2) leptin is secreted by lipofibroblasts in amounts that stimulate type II cell surfactant phospholipid synthesis in vitro; 3) epithelial cell secretions such as parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), PGE(2), and dexamethasone stimulate leptin expression by fetal rat lung fibroblasts; 4) PTHrP or leptin stimulate the de novo synthesis of surfactant phospholipid (2- to 2.5-fold/24 h) and the expression of surfactant protein B (SP-B; >25-fold/24 h) by fetal rat lung explants, an effect that is blocked by a leptin antibody; and 5) a PTHrP receptor antagonist inhibits the expression of leptin mRNA by explants but does not inhibit leptin stimulation of surfactant phospholipid or SP-B expression, indicating that PTHrP paracrine stimulation of type II cell maturation requires leptin expression by lipofibroblasts. This is the first demonstration of a paracrine loop that functionally cooperates to induce alveolar acinar lung development.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Assessment of enamelysin (MMP-20) selectivity to three peptide bonds on amelogenin sequence.

Recent studies have highlighted the potential role of the metalloproteinase enamelysin (MMP-20) in controlling some of the most critical stages during enamel development. This study was aimed to assess the selectivity of enamelysin to the three most abundant cleavage sites on the amelogenin sequence, and to gain insight into the factors that control the pattern of amelogenin processing during enamel mineralization. Three deca-peptides with sequences based on pig amelogenin and including the proteolytic cleavage sites W/L, S/M, and P/A were synthesized as substrates. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in the rates of cleavage among the three peptides, indicating comparable selectivity of enamelysin for these peptide bonds. Considering the selective appearance of amelogenin proteolytic products, we suggest that amelogenin folding and assembly are the primary factors in controlling the pattern of its proteolysis during the secretory stage of enamel development.

Alanine↗

PubMed2002

Influence of region of interest and bone size on calcaneal BMD: implications for the accuracy of quantitative ultrasound assessments at the calcaneus.

There is considerable technological diversity among quantitative ultrasound (QUS) devices used to assess osteoporosis. Because the distance between the transducer and the footplate remains constant, the location of the calcaneus measured will vary with foot size. This study was designed to quantify the variation in bone mineral density (BMD) between a manufacturer's region of interest (ROI_M), which is fixed relative to the footplate, and an anatomical region of interest (ROI_A), which is defined as 20% of calcaneal length. The effect of foot length and width on QUS variables measured using two Food and Drug Administration cleared QUS devices, the Sahara (Hologic) and the Achilles+ (Lunar) was assessed. 26 healthy subjects (12 male and 14 female), aged 22-54 years (35.6+/-10 years) and with foot lengths of 21.5 cm to 29.7 cm (25.1+/-2.3 cm) were recruited. QUS assessments were performed at the right calcaneus. In addition, a Hologic 4500 densitometer was used to measure the BMD of the calcaneus in the ROI_M and ROI_A. The sizes of the ROIs were approximated to the sizes of the transducers of the Sahara and Achilles+ devices. The results showed a significant difference in BMD between the two ROI locations for the Sahara device (BMD 0.642+/-0.135 g cm(-2) vs 0.616+/-0.114 g cm(-2), p=0.014), but no significant difference was found in BMD between the two locations for the Achilles device (BMD 0.661+/-0.120 g cm(-2) vs 0.662+/-0.123 g cm(-2), p=0.818). At the ROI_A, there was a significant difference in BMD between the two QUS devices (p<0.001). The correlation between QUS variables and BMD was slightly higher for the ROI_M (r=0.68-0.79, since this is site-matched) than the ROI_A (r=0.59-0.70) for the Achilles device, while for the Sahara device the correlations were r=0.35-0.40 and r=0.51-0.54, respectively. The smaller ROI of the Sahara device resulted in more than 50% of the subjects having BMD differences of greater than 5% between the ROI_A and the ROI_M, compared with only 20% of the subjects on the Achilles device. ROIs containing cortical bone edge and other soft tissues were found in 58% of cases for the Achilles device and 46% of cases for the Sahara device. The greatest differences occurred in very small and very large feet. Calcaneal length correlated significantly with Sahara speed of sound (SOS), and heel width correlated significantly with Achilles SOS. Heel width also correlated significantly with Sahara broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) but not Achilles+ BUA. These results suggest that variation in ROI and bone size might affect the accuracy of QUS measurements, since the calcaneus is heterogeneous both in terms of its external geometry and its internal structure and density.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Testosterone and estradiol modulate TNF-alpha-induced expression of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells.

Cytokine-activated endothelial expression of adhesion molecules plays an important role in immune responses. In the present study, we investigated the influences of testosterone and 17 beta-estradiol on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced expression of adhesion molecules in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). HUVEC were incubated with TNF-alpha, testosterone or 17 beta-estradiol separately, or in a combination of TNF-alpha plus testosterone or 17 beta-estradiol. The expression of E-selectin, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) was evaluated at 3, 6, 12 and 24 h following exposure by flow cytometric analysis. The results showed that although testosterone or 17 beta-estradiol did not affect the expression of these adhesion molecules in unstimulated HUVEC, both of them transiently increased the expression of E-selectin and VCAM-1 in TNF-alpha stimulated HUVEC. Neither testosterone nor 17 beta-estradiol affected the expression of ICAM-1 induced by TNF-alpha. It is concluded that both testosterone and 17 beta-estradiol increase TNF-alpha-induced expression of E-selectin and VCAM-1 in endothelial cells and these facts might indicate a mechanism by which gonadal hormones can indirectly enhance immune responses.

Cells, Cultured↗

PubMed2002

The effects of cigarette smoke extract on the endothelial production of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 are mediated through macrophages, possibly by inducing TNF-alpha release.

Cigarette smoke (CS) is a major risk factor for many human diseases, although the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of a water-soluble CS extract (CSE) on soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) production by human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) mediated through ANA-1 macrophages. First, macrophages were incubated with or without CSE, and the supernatants collected at different time points were used to measure the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and sICAM-1 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); and second, HUVEC were cultured with CSE, a vehicle, or ANA-1 supernatants (collected at different time points) and the sICAM-1 levels in the supernatants were measured by ELISA at 24 h. The results showed that: i) CSE showed no effect on the production of sICAM-1 by HUVEC; ii) sICAM-1, in unstimulated or CSE-stimulated ANA-1 supernatants collected at different time points, was under the detectable level; iii) CSE-stimulated ANA-1 supernatants collected at 3 or 6 h showed no effect on sICAM-1 production in HUVEC, while those collected at 12 and 24 h significantly increased sICAM-1 production (p < 0.02 and p < 0.005, respectively); iv) no significant difference in TNF-alpha levels was detected between unstimulated and CSE-stimulated macrophage supernatants collected at 3 and 6 h, however, higher levels of TNF-alpha were found in CSE-stimulated supernatants collected at 12 and 24 h (p < 0.05 and p < 0.002, respectively); and v) a significant correlation (r = 0.9693, p < 0.001) was found between the levels of TNF-alpha in CSE-stimulated ANA-1 supernatants and those of related sICAM-1 production in HUVEC. These findings indicate that CSE indirectly increases the production of sICAM-1 in HUVEC by activating macrophages, which possibly induces the release of TNF-alpha from them, which in turn enhances the production of sICAM-1 from HUVEC.

Cells, Cultured↗

PubMed2002

[Changes in cerebral near infrared spectroscopy parameters during manual acupuncture needle stimulation].

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRO 300, Hamamatsu Photonics, Japan) was used to monitor human cerebral function in the central region during manual acupuncture needle stimulation of the large intestine 4 (LI.4) point in 16 adult volunteers (9 females, 7 males; mean age 23.9 +/- 6.0 (SD) years, range 19-45 years). We found a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in oxyhaemoglobin after needle insertion and stimulation (duration 20 sec.), accompanied by an increase (p = 0.003) in deoxyhaemoglobin. A repeat stimulation showed similar effects. Cytochrome oxidase aa3 remained unchanged during stimulation. The results demonstrate that near-infrared spectroscopy may be a noninvasive method of measuring regional changes in cerebral haemodynamics resulting from peripheral acupuncture stimulation.

Acupuncture Points↗

PubMed2002

Differential dimerization and association among resistin family proteins with implications for functional specificity.

Secreted by white adipose tissue as a hormone, resistin was identified as a possible link between obesity and insulin resistance. High circulating resistin levels were observed to correlate with obesity. Administration of resistin lowered the glucose tolerance threshold and impaired insulin activity; whereas anti-resistin antibodies had the opposite effects. However, contradictory data were subsequently reported in regard to the correlation between resistin expression level and obesity or type 2 diabetes. Two additional proteins that share a highly homologous C-terminus with resistin have been identified in mouse, and one in human, forming a resistin-related protein family. Resistin was shown to dimerize through a disulfide bond formed by the N-terminal-most cysteine (Cys26). Here we demonstrate that while Cys26 is both necessary and sufficient for homodimer formation, all three resistin family members can also interact with one another regardless of the presence of Cys26 through non-covalent interactions. Furthermore, protein crosslinking analysis indicated that resistin and resistin beta, but not resistin alpha, exist as multimers, probably with a dimer as the subunit. The multiple protein complex formation is obviously at a level higher than the Cys26 disulfide bonding. These results suggest the potential importance of considering intermolecular interactions among resistin family members in studying their functions.

Animals↗