Food labels consistently underestimate the actual weights of single-serving baked products.
Explore the source record for details and available documents.
Diet↗
Biomedical subjects
L R Young
Publications and source records attributed to L R Young.
Portion sizes in dietary assessment: issues and policy implications.
Accurate estimates of energy and nutrient intake of individuals and populations are contingent on the reliability of information obtained about food intake, food composition, and portion size. This article reviews issues related to the definition, determination, and use of portion sizes in dietary assessment and public education.
Eating↗
Perceptual and eye movement responses elicited by linear acceleration following spaceflight.
Responses of four crewmembers were measured before and after a 9-d Spacelab Mission during inter-aural (y-axis) and longitudinal (z-axis) linear acceleration. During one test, eye movements were recorded with simultaneous sinusoidal acceleration and constant-velocity optokinetic stimulation. Postflight responses indicated changes in the horizontal sinusoidal response during the y-axis trials. In another test, subjects indicated direction of acceleration during a series of low acceleration steps. More incorrect direction indications were observed postflight, and the y-axis sensitivity increased while the z-axis sensitivity decreased for three subjects. In a third test, subjects used a joystick to null pseudo-random linear motion. Not one subject showed a significantly enhanced ability to null linear motion in the y-axis, while two subjects showed an enhanced ability during z-axis testing postflight. Oculomotor and perceptual responses to linear acceleration are modified by exposure to microgravity and become more variable postflight. The observed changes may be due to an altered interpretation of inertial cues in space that is inappropriate postflight.
Acceleration↗
The interaction of otolith organ stimulation and smooth pursuit tracking.
The interaction of otolith organ stimulation and horizontal pursuit eye tracking in humans was studied in two different paradigms. In the first we measured the effects of lateral linear acceleration on ocular tracking of a retinal after-image, as compared to eye movements produced by acceleration alone (the linear VOR). The second paradigm determined the improvement in smooth oculomotor tracking presumably due to otolith input, by comparing tracking of an earth-fixed target during subject motion to tracking of target motion with the subject stationary. Subject and target motions in each case were sinusoidal. After-image tracking enhanced the gain of the linear VOR by a factor of 2 to 10. This is interpreted to mean that oculomotor efferent copy information is used to reconstruct an internal representation of target velocity, which is then tracked by the oculomotor system in the after-image condition. In the second paradigm, linear motion information transduced by the otolith organs combined with visual target information to yield improved oculomotor tracking over either system alone.
Adult↗
Three dimensional eye movements of squirrel monkeys following postrotatory tilt.
Three-dimensional squirrel monkey eye movements were recorded during and immediately following rotation around an earth-vertical yaw axis (160 degrees/s steady state, 100 degrees/s2 acceleration and deceleration). To study interactions between the horizontal angular vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and head orientation, postrotatory VOR alignment was changed relative to gravity by tilting the head out of the horizontal plane (pitch or roll tilt between 15 degrees and 90 degrees) immediately after cessation of motion. Results showed that in addition to post rotatory horizontal nystagmus, vertical nystagmus followed tilts to the left or right (roll), and torsional nystagmus followed forward or backward (pitch) tilts. When the time course and spatial orientation of eye velocity were considered in three dimensions, the axis of eye rotation always shifted toward alignment with gravity, and the postrotatory horizontal VOR decay was accelerated by the tilts. These phenomena may reflect a neural process that resolves the sensory conflict induced by this postrotatory tilt paradigm.
Animals↗
A multidimensional model of the effect of gravity on the spatial orientation of the monkey.
A "sensory conflict" model of spatial orientation was developed. This mathematical model was based on concepts derived from observer theory, optimal observer theory, and the mathematical properties of coordinate rotations. The primary hypothesis is that the central nervous system of the squirrel monkey incorporates information about body dynamics and sensory dynamics to develop an internal model. The output of this central model (expected sensory afference) is compared to the actual sensory afference, with the difference defined as "sensory conflict." The sensory conflict information is, in turn, used to drive central estimates of angular velocity ("velocity storage"), gravity ("gravity storage"), and linear acceleration ("acceleration storage") toward more accurate values. The model successfully predicts "velocity storage" during rotation about an earth-vertical axis. The model also successfully predicts that the time constant of the horizontal vestibulo-ocular reflex is reduced and that the axis of eye rotation shifts toward alignment with gravity following postrotatory tilt. Finally, the model predicts the bias, modulation, and decay components that have been observed during off-vertical axis rotations (OVAR).
Animals↗
Space and the vestibular system: what has been learned?
Explore the source record for details and available documents.
Humans↗
Spatial orientation and posture during and following weightlessness: human experiments on Spacelab Life Sciences 1.
The 4 payload crew members of the Spacelab Life Sciences 9-day space flight in 1991 were subjected to limited vestibular testing in flight as well as pre and post flight. Major differences in individual "perceptual style" appeared in their reaction to the visual-vestibular stimuli in the rotating dome experiment, and especially in the extent to which nondirectional tactile cues served to anchor the subjective vertical and body postural reactions. The ability of subjects to point to remembered target positions was degraded in space, which produced a tendency to point low in some subjects in flight. The eye movements and subjective response to sudden stops and head pitching following continuous spinning (dumping) were measured both in space and on the ground. Although subjective duration of inflight rotation for the dumping tests was shorter than that for the preflight tests, the postrotatory nystagmus, with or without head pitch, was lengthened in time constant relative to preflight. Ground tests, in addition to the flight experiments, investigated the changes following weightlessness in subjective and oculomotor reactions to whole body tilt, the ability to balance with eyes open and closed; leg muscles strength and stamina as related to posture; visual field dependence; and the perceptual and oculomotor reactions to horizontal linear acceleration. Several of these tests, as well as post-flight measures of motion sickness susceptibility, revealed subtle evidence of neurovestibular alterations that lasted a week or more following the 10-day orbital exposure.
Adaptation, Physiological↗
Multisensory integration in microgravity.
Explore the source record for details and available documents.
Gravitation↗
Three-dimensional eye velocity measurement following postrotational tilt in the monkey.
Explore the source record for details and available documents.
Animals↗
Linear acceleration and horizontal eye movements in man.
Explore the source record for details and available documents.
Acceleration↗
Spatial orientation of VOR to combined vestibular stimuli in squirrel monkeys.
The interaction of angular and linear stimuli produces a complex alignment of spatial orientation and the VOR. This phenomenon was studied by measuring three dimensional eye movements in 6 squirrel monkeys during centrifugation in the dark. The axis of eye rotation was always aligned with gravity and with the spinal axis of the upright monkeys. The erect monkeys were oriented such that they were either facing toward the direction of motion or were facing away from the motion. Angular velocity trapezoids were utilized as the motion stimuli with a ramp acceleration of 10 degrees/s2 to a constant velocity of 200 degrees/s. This yields a final centripetal acceleration of 1 g. The orientation of centripetal acceleration dramatically altered the VOR by changing the axis of eye rotation, the peak value of slow phase eye velocity, and the time constant of per-rotary decay. The axis of eye rotation always tended to align with gravito-inertial force, the peak value of slow phase eye velocity was greater when the monkey faced the motion than when it faced away from the motion, and the time constant of decay was smaller when the monkey faced the motion than when it faced away from the motion. These findings were statistically significant (p less than 0.05) and were consistent across all monkeys. The data also indicate that the VOR may be separated into two reflexes, a linear reflex and a rotational reflex. The linear reflex decays as the axis of eye rotation aligns with gravito-inertial force (GIF). These results indicate that GIF is resolved into two components: one representing an internal estimate of linear acceleration and one representing an internal estimate of gravity.
Acceleration↗
Perception of linear acceleration in weightlessness.
Tests of the perception and use of linear acceleration sensory information were performed on the science crews of the Spacelab 1 (SL-1) and D-1 missions using linear "sleds" in-flight (D-1) and pre-post flight. The time delay between the acceleration step stimulus and the subjective response was consistently reduced during weightlessness, but was neither statistically significant nor of functional importance. Increased variability of responses when going from one environment to the other was apparent from measurements on the first day of the mission and in the first days post-flight. Subjective report of perceived motion during sinusoidal oscillation in weightlessness were qualitatively similar to reports on earth. In a closed-loop motion nulling task, enhanced performance was observed post-flight in all crewmembers tested in the Y or Z axes.
Acceleration↗
Perception of linear acceleration in weightlessness.
Tests of the perception and use of linear acceleration sensory information were performed on the science crews of the Spacelab 1 (SL-1) and D-1 missions using linear "sleds" in-flight (D-1) and pre-post flight. The time delay between the acceleration step stimulus and the subjective response was consistently reduced during weightlessness, but was neither statistically significant nor of functional importance. Increased variability of responses when going from one environment to the other was apparent from measurements on the first day of the mission and in the first days post-flight. Subjective reports of perceived motion during sinusoidal oscillation in weightlessness were qualitatively similar to reports on earth. In a closed-loop motion nulling task, enhanced performance was observed post-flight in all crewmembers tested in the Y or Z axes.
Acceleration↗
Microgravity enhances the relative contribution of visually-induced motion sensation.
Visually-induced self-motion sensation and postural reflexes were first explored in microgravity on the Spacelab 1 mission where four subjects demonstrated that visual orientation effects were stronger in microgravity than preflight. Extended testing of two more subjects during the Spacelab D-1 orbital flight confirmed this finding. The development of visual substitution for inappropriate graviceptor information occurs over the first day or two in microgravity. Additional instrumentation to measure postural reactions failed to produce a more reliable indicator of visual effects than subjective orientation. Localized tactile cues applied to the feet changed the qualitative nature of vection and reduced its subjective strength.
Cues↗
Age, interpersonal attraction, and social interaction. A review and assessment.
This essay reviews over 40 extant research reports on attraction and aging. The review indicated that (a) perceived agreement in attitude tends to neutralize young adults' general perception of older adults as unattractive, (b) elders prefer to associate with middle-aged and older adults more than they desire to associate with younger adults, regardless of the relative physical attraction of the target individuals, and (c) elders' marital satisfaction appears to be related to perceived physical attractiveness of the husband, not the wife. The authors provide critique and analysis of the research methods employed in the reviewed studies. Avenues for further research are identified.
Aged↗
Optimal estimator model for human spatial orientation.
A model is presented to predict human dynamic spatial orientation in response to multisensory stimuli. Motion stimuli are first processed by dynamic models of the visual, vestibular, tactile, and proprioceptive sensors. Central nervous system function is modeled as a steady state Kalman filter that optimally blends information from the various sensors to form an estimate of spatial orientation. Where necessary, nonlinear elements preprocess inputs to the linear central estimator in order to reflect more accurately some nonlinear human response characteristics. Computer implementation of the model has shown agreement with several important qualitative characteristics of human spatial orientation.
Computer Simulation↗
Visual field influence on manual roll and pitch stabilization.
Human control performance in nulling perceived tilt angles was investigated for combinations of pseduo-random vestibular disturbances and different waveforms of low frequency wide visual field motions. For both roll and pitch axes, subjects tilted the trainer in which they were seated in the direction of field rotation. This visual bias was much stronger for pitch backwards with upward field rotation. Frequency response analysis showed the dominance of visual cues at low frequencies (below 0.06 Hz) and the reliance on vestibular information in the high frequency range for both axes. Models suggest that operator balancing responses at high frequencies are mainly processed by the semicircular canals rather than the otolith organs. The results also suggest that the subject tends to rely less on the otolith organs for pitch perception than for roll.
Adult↗