Biomedical subjects

L Li

Publications and source records attributed to L Li.

At least 721 records · Page 40Linked to original sources

PubMed2000

[Study on the mortality of injury in Chinese population in urban and rural areas from 1990 to 1997].

OBJECTIVE: To describe the characteristics and trend of injuries among urban and rural Chinese population. METHODS: Data from annual Chinese national health statistics (1990 - 1997) were analyzed. RESULTS: The overall mortality of injury in China increased from 36.8/10(6) to 76.7/10(6) from 1990 to 1997. Injury was the forth leading causes of death in urban areas and the fifth in rural areas. The death rate of injury declined in the urban while increasing in the rural areas. The rural death rate of injury was about two times of that in urban and the difference was increasing over time. The death rate of men was higher than that of women and the ratio was 1.3 - 1.9. Children below 4 years old and people above 60 years old showed the highest rates. The first three leading causes of death of injuries in urban areas were traffic accident, suicide and fall, while in rural areas were suicide, traffic accident and drowning. The death rate caused by suicide was 6.5/10(6) - 27.1/10(6) and the rate in rural areas was 2.7 to 4.0 times of that in urban areas. The mortality of suicide declined in urban while increased in rural areas. The mortality of traffic accidents had a tendency of increase in both urban and rural areas. CONCLUSION: Injury has been one of the leading cause of death but without effectively control programs for population in Urban and Rural areas in China, special in rural areas.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2000

[Cytochrome P450IA1 and the genetic susceptibility to esophageal carcinoma].

OBJECTIVES: To explore the susceptibility to esophageal carcinoma (EC) in different population with different cytochrome P450 IA1 (CYPIA1) genotype, and study the synergistic effects between CYPIA1 and smoking. METHODS: A case-control study (case = 111, control = 114) was used to compare the frequency of CYPIA1 genotype between EC and controls with a PCR method. RESULTS: The distribution of three genotypes of CYPIA1 in EC and controls was significantly different (chi(2) = 19.35, P < 0.01). There was a synergistic effect between the mutation of CYPIA1 4,889 site and smoking (SIA = 1.56), and a significant dose-response effect was observed. The risk of individual whose CYPIA1 4,889 site is mutated was 3 times higher than those not mutated. CONCLUSIONS: The mutation of CYPIA1 ,89 site maybe one of important host susceptible factors of EC, and the risk would increase significantly in smokers.

Aged↗

PubMed2000

[A study on incidence of injury and its socio-economic loss in children and young adults].

OBJECTIVES: To study the current status of incidence of injury among children and young adults and the causes of common injuries, and to estimate its socio-economic loss and extent of harmfulness. METHODS: Pupils in 19 primary and middle schools aged 7 to 18 years, totaling 14,533, were recruited with stratified cluster sampling during 1998 to 1999 in Guangzhou, Maoming, Jiangmen and Shantou. Judgement for injury was based on the following criteria: (1) diagnosed and treated in hospitals or school clinics, (2) a half-day off or more due to injury, and (3) emergency management by pupils' parents or teachers. RESULTS: There were 6 941 pupils suffered from varied injures during the year, with an incidence rate of 47.76% (50.08% for boys and 45.02% for girls). Incidence rate of injury was higher in the middle school pupils (13 - 18 years old, 58.49%) than that in the primary school pupils (7 - 12 years old, 40.08%). The incidence increased significantly with age, with a peak at ages of 13 - 15. Major causes of injuries resulted from falls, injury by sharp articles, collision, traffic injuries and burn/scalds, etc, which usually occurred due to carelessness in sports, playing, walking, bike-riding and working. Frequency of multiple injuries related to the educational level of parents and depended on whether or not an only-child in family. There were 2,173 injured pupils (accounting for 31.3% of the total) visited clinics or emergency department in hospitals and 627 (9.0%) hospitalized for treatment. Twenty-eight percent of the injured pupils were absent from school, with an average absenteeism of 5.6 days. There were 154 injured pupils with transient disability and 53 with permanent disability, with a disability rate of 410.47 per 100,000. Cost for their medical care averaged 81.5 yuan RMB per injured pupil. CONCLUSIONS: Injury was a common and frequently-happened incident among children and young adults and could seriously affect their health, development and growth, studying and their future of children and young adults. Health education, safety-promotion and removing hidden danger for injury are the major measures to prevent from injury, and the government and the whole society should pay great attention to injury issues in children and young adults.

Accidents↗

PubMed2000

[Study on spontaneous apoptosis of human non-small cell lung cancer tissues].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the spontaneous apoptosis in human non- small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tissues, and the impact of PCNA and microvessel density on it. METHODS: TDT in situ labeling and immunohistochemistry were used to display apoptotic cells, PCNA and microvessels. RESULTS: The total forty-six cases of NSCLC were observed. Apoptosis index (AI) was 2.8% +/- 2.3% on average, and higher in squamous carcinomas (3.4% +/- 1.7%) than in adenocarcinomas (1.2% +/- 2.0%). AI in the poorly differentiated carcinomas (3.9% +/- 2.7%) was significantly higher than in the middle- and well-differentiated carcinomas (2.8% +/- 2.0%, 0.5% +/- 0.2% respectively). AI was higher in NSCLC with PCNA-positive cell rate >or= 25% (3.4% +/- 2.2%) than with PCAN-positive cell rate < 25% (1.9% +/- 2.2%). Microvessel density was higher in NSCLC with AI < 2% ( 74.4 +/- 29.6 counts/200 field) than with AI >or= 2% (42.0 +/- 12.8 counts/200 field). Apoptotic cells were frequently seen in the regions with less microvessels and distal to microvessels. CONCLUSIONS: Spontaneous apoptotic cells mainly occur in the tissues of squamous carcinomas and poorly-differentiated carcinomas and NSCLC with higher PCNA-positive cell rates. Hypoxia could induce apoptosis of lung cancer cells.

Adenocarcinoma↗

PubMed2000

[Detection of alterations of the DPC4 gene in paraffin-embedded tissues of pancreatic carcinomas].

OBJECTIVE: To examine the alteration and significance of the DPC4 gene in paraffin-embedded tissues of pancreatic carcinomas. METHODS: Polymerase chain reaction and single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis were used to search for deletions and mutations in the DPC4 gene in 46 cases of pancreatic carcinomas. RESULTS: Thirteen of forty-six (28.3%) cases were found to have homozygous deletions in exon 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 and 11. One was in exon 11, one in exon 1 and 11, one in exon 2 and 3, one in exon 3 and 8, one in exon 1, 2 and 8, one in exon 2, 4 and 11, one in exon 3, 4 and 11, three in exon 3, 4 and 8, one in exon 2, 3, 4, and 8, one in exon 2, 3, 8 and 11, one in exon 2, 3, 4, 8 and 11. Intragenic mutations were found in 10 of 46 cases (21.7%). One case was in exon 1, one in exon 2, three in exon 8, four in exon 11, and one in exon 4 and 11. The total frequency of intragenic changes of DPC4 in paraffin-embedded tissues was 45.6% (21/46). CONCLUSION: Inactivation of tumor-suppressor gene DPC4 may play an important role during the tumorigenesis of pancreatic carcinomas.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

[Cerulenin inhibits growth of human colonic carcinoma in nude mice].

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of fatty acid synthase inhibitor, cerulenin, on tumor growth of human colonic carcinoma (LoVo) in nude mice. METHODS: The transplantable colonic carcinoma cell line LoVo model was established in BALB/CA-nu/nu mice by subcutaneous implantation. Cerulenin was administrated by i.p. injection (80 mg/kg, 160 mg/kg each time) for 10 times. 17 days later the mice were killed and tumor size evaluated. RESULTS: The size of tumors in cerulenin-treated group were significantly smaller than in control group and were similar to that of the 5-Fu treated group. Transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) revealed that death of LoVo cells treated by cerulenin was associated with apoptosis characterized by cell shrinkage, condensation and chromosome fragmentation. bcl-2 oncoprotein expression rate was significantly lower in cerulenin-treated group in comparing with the control group. The expression rate of bax was the opposite to that of bcl-2. CONCLUSIONS: Cerulenin effectively suppresses the growth of human colonic carcinoma cells in vivo. The mechanism of cell death may be correlated with apoptosis, and bcl-2 and bax gene may play an important role in regulating cerulenin-induced apoptosis.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[The clinical and experimental study on postburn metabolic characteristics of zinc and its influence on copper, iron and calcium].

OBJECTIVE: To observe postburn metabolic characteristics of zinc and its influence on copper, iron, calcium. METHODS: (1) To analyze the levels of Zn, Cu, Fe, Ca in the serum and urine of burn patient on different postburn days. (2) To replicate a rat model of zinc deficiency and to observe the symptoms and the effects of zinc supplementation in different dosage after scalding in rats with zinc deficiency. (3) To assay the levels of Zn, Cu, Fe, Ca in rat wound tissues following supplementation of zinc in diet and to wounds in rats after scald. RESULTS: (1) The levels of serum Zn and Cu decreased markedly on 1 similar 3 days in major burn patients, whereas the urine Zn and Cu increased obviously, reaching the peak value on the 14th day. The serum and urine Fe increased rapidly on PBD2 and then descended steeply. The serum and urine Ca kept lower levels all along. (2) In zinc deficient rats growth retardation appeared first and other symptoms emerged subsequently. Serum Zn decreased and serum Cu, Fe, Ca increased. (3) The levels of Zn, Cu, Fe, Ca in wound tissue of scalded rats showed a continuous postburn increase. The Ca contents in wound tissue increased about 50 -- fold. Zn content in wound was more obviously increased than Cu, Fe and Ca when Zn was supplemented through wound compared with that with diet supplementation. CONCLUSION: Serum Zn level was lowered after scald and it could be elevated after supplementing zinc by diet or through wound, Changes in serum Cu, Fe, Ca occurred corresponding to the change in serum Zn.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[Study of the expression and function of c-kit receptor on the bone marrow mononuclear cells of the patients with myelodysplastic syndromes].

OBJECTIVE: To determine the expression and function of c-kit receptor on bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMMNC) of the patients with myelodysplastic syndromes. METHODS: c-kit protein (CD(117)) was detected by direct immunofluorescence assay, c-kit mRNA by reverse transcriptive polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and the function of c-kit receptor by cell culture. RESULTS: c-kit protein expression in MDS was significantly higher than that in control [(8.58 +/- 5.28)% vs (3.04 +/- 1.49)%, P < 0.05]. c-kit protein expression in RA patients was significantly lower than that in RAEB/RAEB-t patients [(5.12 +/- 2.13)% vs (10.01 +/- 5.07)%, P < 0.05]. The rate of c-kit protein expression was (32.43 +/- 18.16)% in AML cases transformed from MDS (t-AML). c-kit mRNA expression in MDS was correlated with c-kit protein expression. Addition of interleukin-3 (IL-3), erythropoietin (Epo) and stem cell factor (SCF) to the semi-solid culture of BMMNC showed significant stimulating effects on CFU-GM and BFU-E formation in normal controls, but did not in MDS patients. CONCLUSION: The protein and mRNA expressions of c-kit receptor on BMMNC in MDS are higher than those in normal control, and the function of this receptor in MDS is abnormal.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

[Mobilization of autologous peripheral blood stem cells by chemotherapy and recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the efficacy of chemotherapy and recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF, Glycosylated) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in autologous peripheral blood stem cells (APBSC) mobilization. METHODS: The mobilization regimen: CBP 350 mg/m(2) intravenously injected at day 1, Vp16 350 mg/m(2) intravenously injected from day 1 to day 3. G-CSF and GM-CSF 5 microg x kg(-1) x d(-1) each, subcutaneously injected and DXM 5 mg/d intramuscularly injected, from the day of white blood cell (WBC) recovery to (2.4 - 6.4) x 10(9)/L from nadir to the day before the end of APBSC harvesting. APBSC harvesting started when WBC > 20.0 x 10(9)/L and ended when accumulated mononuclear cells (MNC) > 5 x 10(8)/kg. CFU-GM assay and CD(34)(+) cells counting of the APBSC were performed. RESULTS: Twenty cases underwent APBSC mobilization. APBSC harvest began at day 22.15 +/- 3.66 for two successive days. Accumulated MNC was (5.93 +/- 1.62) x 10(8)/kg, CD(34)(+) cells (23.10 +/- 11.53) x 10(6)/kg and CFU-GM (3.44 +/- 2.85) x 10(5)/kg. No severe toxicity was observed. Hematopoiesis was well reconstituted in 8 patients received single and in 1 patient received double APBSC transplantations. CONCLUSION: Chemotherapy combined with G-CSF + GM-CSF was a safe and highly effective method for APBSC mobilization.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

[Quantitative determination of EAIgG by ABC-ELISA and its clinical significance].

OBJECTIVE: To explore a method for diagnosis of autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) and evaluate its clinical significance. METHODS: Erythrocyte associated IgG (EAIgG) was quantified in 60 healthy people, 44 patients with warm antibody AIHA (WAIHA), 108 non-immune anemia and 44 other immune diseases (total 256 cases) by using ABC-ELISA were estimated. RESULTS: EAIgG in WAIHA patients were significantly higher than those in other groups (P < 0.01). In the 44 WAIHA patients, 38 were Coombs positive and 6 Coombs negative. EAIgG in Coombs negative was significantly high. The dynamic changes of EAIgG in 12 WAIHA patients were observed during treatment. When patient's condition got better, Hb and RBC increased and EAIgG decreased. CONCLUSION: Quantitative detection of EAIgG is an index in the diagnosis of WAIHA, especially in AIHA with negative Coombs' test. It is also a useful factor for evaluating therapeutic effect and prognosis in WAIHA.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

[Expression of lipofect AMINE mediated human GM-CSF eukaryotic expressing vector in HFCL cells].

OBJECTIVE: To construct an eukaryotic expressing vector-pIRES1neo/hGM-CSF and express it in human bone marrow stromal cell line HFCL. METHODS: Human granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor cDNA (hGM-CSF cDNA, 751 bp) was inserted into an effective eukaryotic expressing vector-pIRES1neo which contains the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) major immediate early promoter/enhancer and the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) of the encephalomyocarditis virus (ECMV). HFCL cells were transfected with the recombinant vector pIRES1neo/hGM-CSF by liposome-mediated gene transfer method. Integration of hGM-CSF in the genome, transcription of its mRNA and expression of its protein in the transfected HFCL cells were assayed by Southern blot, Northern blot, ELISA and hGM-CSF dependent cell line TF-1. RESULTS: hGM-CSF cDNA was integrated into HFCL genome successfully, hGM-CSF mRNA was transcripted and hGM-CSF protein was expressed of (56.9 +/- 0.7) ng/10(6) cells by ELISA and (6.56 +/- 0.16) x 10(3) U/10(6) cells per day by TF-1 cell assay in the supernatant. CONCLUSION: The recombinant vector is proved to be stably expressed in HFCL cells and the biological activity of hGM-CSF was detectable in the supernatant of the transfected cells.

Blotting, Northern↗

PubMed2000

[Experimental studies on the characteristics of suicide gene system HSV-tk/GCV and its effect on dendritic cells].

OBJECTIVE: To study the characteristics of suicide gene system of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-tk) gene in tumor cells and explore the apoptosis phenomena in this system and its effect on dendritic cells (DC). METHOD: HSV-tk was transduced into the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 cells with a retrovirus vector. Apoptosis was examined by electro-microscopy and FACS. DCs were induced from cord blood CD(34)(+) cells with a combination of cytokines (GM-CSF, TNF-alpha, SCF and FL) and (3)H-TdR was adopted to determine the proliferation of T cells. RESULTS: In vitro experiment showed a dose-dependent cell killing of the HSV-tk gene transducted cells on ganciclovir (GCV) treatment. The apoptosis rate increased to 31.3% from the control group of 19.3%. Apoptosis is the important mechanism in bystander effect of HSV-tk/GCV system. The CD(1a)(+) and HLA-DR(+) cells in the induced DC were of (27.18 +/-1.56)% and (93.7 +/- 1.0)%, respectively. Co-incubation of DC with apoptotic cells further stimulated the proliferation of T cells. CONCLUSION: It suggested that HSV-tk/GCV system, alone or combined with radiotherapy, be a promising suicide gene therapy for cancer patient and an approach to enhancing DC function.

3T3 Cells↗

PubMed2000

[Effect of scald on gene transcription and content of endothelin-1 in supraoptic nucleus of rat hypothalamus].

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) gene transcription and endothelin-1-immunoreactivity (ET-1-ir) in the supraoptic nucleus (SON) of rat hypothalamus were respectively observed by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry after scald. Intensity of ET-1 mRNA and endothelin-1-immunoreactivity (ET-1-ir) was quantified by image analysis. Compared with the control (sham scald) group, no significant change in the intensity of ET-1 mRNA positive hybridization signals in SON was found 15 min post-scald, while there was a 35.1% increase in the positive hybridization signal intensity 60 min post-scald (P<0.05) and a 62.4% increase 180 min post-scald (P<0.01). The content of ET-1-ir in SON decreased significantly to 8.5% of the control 15 min post-scald (P<0.01), and gradually recovered to 31.5% and 52.4% of the control 60 min and 180 min post-scald respectively, though still significantly lower than the control (P<0.01). Pre- and post-scald ET-1 gene transcription in rat hypothalamus was also measured by Northern blot hybridization. No significant difference in the quantity of ET-1 mRNA was found between 15 min post-scald data and those of the control. The quantity increased to a significantly higher level 60 min post-scald (P<0.05) and further increased to 2.5 creased to 2.5 fold of the control 180 min post-scald (P<0.05). In addition, the Northern blot hybridization showed that the post-scald size of ET-1 mRNA remained unchanged despite of the increase in quantity. In view of the neuroendocrine role of SON, the changes in ET-1 mRNA and ET-1-ir in SON resulting from scald suggest that ET-1 may play an important role in neuroendocrine reactions following scald.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[Effects of hypoxia on the proliferation and differentiation of CD34(+) hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells and their response to cytokines].

To elucidate the effects of hypoxia on the proliferation and differentiation of CD34(+) hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells and their response to cytokines, the cells were isolated from umbilical cord blood by using a high-gradient magnetic cell sorting system (MACS). Mononuclear cells (MNC) and CD34(+) cells were incubated in severe hypoxia (1% oxygen) culture system, and the colony forming cells and antigen expression were studied by colony forming assays and FACS analysis. The results showed that incubation in severe hypoxia increased the number of erythroid bursts (BFU-E) (324.8+/-41.4/10(4) cells) generated from CD34(+) cells (191.2+/-34.5/10(4) cells in the control group, P<0.01). Severe hypoxia also enhanced the maintenance and cloning efficiency of BFU-E in a liquid culture system without growth factors, the number of BFU-E (152.4+/-22.6/10(4)cells) was much bigger than that in the control group (74.2+/-9.3/10(4) cells, P<0.01). In cultures incubated in hypoxia, the percentage of CD34(+) cells was significantly higher (2.5+/-1.2-fold, P<0.05) than in those incubated in air. BFU-E cloning efficiency of MNC was not significantly affected by hypoxia. The above results show that hypoxia enhances the maintenance of erythroid progenitor cells generated from CD34(+) hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, no matter growth factors are present or not. These positive effects of hypoxia did not occur for the other progenitors.

Antigens, CD34↗

PubMed2000

[Detection and activity analysis of gelatinases in bone and soft tissue tumors].

This study was aimed to investigate the expression of gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) in mesenchymal tumors and the roles they act during invasion and metastasis. 45 cases of bone and soft tissue tumors with various pathologic categories were subjected to immunohistochemistry and gelatin zymography analysis. The results showed that the positive immuno-staining ratio and the activity of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 were higher in malignant tumors than in benign tumors and normal tissue. In malignant tumors, the positive stained cells usually gathered in the marginal area of tumor foci or the invading area, or formed distinctive positive-stained cell clusters, indicating their relationship with the aggressive biologic behavior of this kind of malignant tumor.

Bone Neoplasms↗

PubMed2000

[A pharmacodynamic research on chromone glucosides of fangfeng].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the pharmacological activity of prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 4'-O-beta-D-glucosyl-5-O-methylvisamminol con tained in Fangfeng. METHODS: Analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory effects were assessed using the models of yeast-induced rat fever, acetic acidinduced peritoneal pain thermalpain, and dimethylbenzol-induced mouse ear edema. RESULTS: Prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 4'-O-beta-D-glucosyl-5-O-methylvisamminol could reduce the body temperature of rats in a model of yeast-induced fever. Both components could decrease the spasm action induced by peritoneal injection of acetic acid, increase the pain-threshold in a thermal-pain model, relieve the mouse ear edema caused by dimethybenzol and significantly inhibit ADP-induced platelet aggregation. CONCLUSION: Prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 4'-O-beta-D-glucosyl-5-O-methylvisamminol have significant analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-platelet aggregation actions.

Analgesics, Non-Narcotic↗

PubMed2000

[The measurement of tracheo-bronchial mucociliary clearance by technetium-99m DTPA aerosol scintigraphy].

Mucociliary clearance of respiratory channels is one of the important mechanisms guarding against retention of foreign particles within the lungs. Thus objective assay of the system is essential to recognizing and understanding its abnormalities. In this study, 18 healthy subjects and 32 patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) were examined by technetium-99m-DTPA aerosol scintigraphy. Monitoring was performed by visual inspection (cinescintigraphy) and quantitative analysis. The mucociliary clearance rates of 18 healthy subjects and 32 COPD patients were 3.89 +/- 0.92 mm/min and 1.32 +/- 0.59 mm/min respectively. Statistical analysis indicated that the airway clearance rate and mucociliary clearance rate of COPD patients were significantly lower than those of normal subjects (P < 0.01). The method of assay reported here is simple and objective. It has not only the advantage of visual inspection and quantitative analysis, but also the potential usefulness in studying other bronchial diseases and evaluating therapeutic effectiveness of drugs.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

[Preliminary isolation and identification of neurotrophic factors sensory neurons in spinal dorsal horn of embryonic chicken].

Our previous studies have demonstrated that the extract from dorsal horn of embryonic chicken can promote apparently the neurite growth of spinal ganglion during development. In this study, we investigated progressively the neurotrophic factors for primary sensory neurons in spinal dorsal horn. The tissues of spinal dorsal horn from five hundred Hamburger Stage-40 embryonic chickens were taken. After homogenization and centrifugation, the supernatant was subjected to SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) for analyzing the protein in dorsal horn. The simple protein band fishing by cell (SPBFC) technique was employed in finding the protein bands with neurons attached, and then such protein bands, were taken and transferred to nitric cellulose paper for Western hybridization analysis by antibody for NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and GDNF respectively. The results of SPBFC showed that some neurons were attached to gel within the scope of mobility relative front (Rf) 0.10-0.19, 0.30-0.35, 0.50-0.55, 0.60-0.67 and 0.90-0.94 respectively, indicating there were some neurotrophic factors for maintaining neuron survival in the above Rf scope. Moreover, the result of Western hybridization showed that the positive hybridization bands in each scope were that of NGF, BDNF, GDNF; NGF, BDNF, NT-3; NGF, BDNF, NT-3; NGF, NT-3 and BDNF, NT-3 respectively; indicating that the neurotrophic effect of spinal dorsal horn tissue on primary sensory neurons involves NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and GDNF. These also suggest that the neuronal survival effect in each Rf scope involves at least two or more neurotrophic factors.

Animals↗