Biomedical subjects

K von Figura

Publications and source records attributed to K von Figura.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2006

The normal phenotype of Pmm1-deficient mice suggests that Pmm1 is not essential for normal mouse development.

Phosphomannomutases (PMMs) are crucial for the glycosylation of glycoproteins. In humans, two highly conserved PMMs exist: PMM1 and PMM2. In vitro both enzymes are able to convert mannose-6-phosphate (mannose-6-P) into mannose-1-P, the key starting compound for glycan biosynthesis. However, only mutations causing a deficiency in PMM2 cause hypoglycosylation, leading to the most frequent type of the congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG): CDG-Ia. PMM1 is as yet not associated with any disease, and its physiological role has remained unclear. We generated a mouse deficient in Pmm1 activity and documented the expression pattern of murine Pmm1 to unravel its biological role. The expression pattern suggested an involvement of Pmm1 in (neural) development and endocrine regulation. Surprisingly, Pmm1 knockout mice were viable, developed normally, and did not reveal any obvious phenotypic alteration up to adulthood. The macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of all major organs, as well as animal behavior, appeared to be normal. Likewise, lectin histochemistry did not demonstrate an altered glycosylation pattern in tissues. It is especially striking that Pmm1, despite an almost complete overlap of its expression with Pmm2, e.g., in the developing brain, is apparently unable to compensate for deficient Pmm2 activity in CDG-Ia patients. Together, these data point to a (developmental) function independent of mannose-1-P synthesis, whereby the normal knockout phenotype, despite the stringent conservation in phylogeny, could be explained by a critical function under as-yet-unidentified challenge conditions.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Characterization of posttranslational formylglycine formation by luminal components of the endoplasmic reticulum.

C(alpha)-formylglycine is the key catalytic residue in the active site of sulfatases. In eukaryotes formylglycine is generated during or immediately after sulfatase translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum by oxidation of a specific cysteine residue. We established an in vitro assay that allowed us to measure formylglycine modification independent of protein translocation. The modifying enzyme was recovered in a microsomal detergent extract. As a substrate we used ribosome-associated nascent chain complexes comprising in vitro synthesized sulfatase fragments that were released from the ribosomes by puromycin. Formylglycine modification was highly efficient and did not require a signal sequence in the substrate polypeptide. Ribosome association helped to maintain the modification competence of nascent chains but only after their release efficient modification occurred. The modifying machinery consists of soluble components of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen, as shown by differential extraction of microsomes. The in vitro assay can be performed under kinetically controlled conditions. The activation energy for formylglycine formation is 61 kJ/mol, and the pH optimum is approximately 10. The activity is sensitive to the SH/SS equilibrium and is stimulated by Ca(2+). Formylglycine formation is efficiently inhibited by a synthetic sulfatase peptide representing the sequence directing formylglycine modification. The established assay system should make possible the biochemical identification of the modifying enzyme.

Alanine↗

PubMed2001

Involvement of nitric oxide released from microglia-macrophages in pathological changes of cathepsin D-deficient mice.

Cathepsin D (CD) deficiency has been shown to induce ceroid-lipofuscin storage in lysosomes of mouse CNS neuron (Koike et al., 2000). To understand the behavior of microglial cells corresponding to these neuronal changes, CD-deficient (CD-/-) mice, which die at approximately postnatal day (P) 25 by intestinal necrosis, were examined using morphological as well as biochemical approaches. Light and electron microscopic observations revealed that microglia showing large round cell bodies with few processes appeared in the cerebral cortex and thalamus after P16. At P24, microglia often encircled neurons that were occupied with autolysosomes, indicating increased phagocytic activity. These morphologically transformed microglia markedly expressed inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which was also detected in the intestine of the mice. To assess the role of microglial nitric oxide (NO) in neuropathological changes in CD-/- mice, l-N(G)-nitro-arginine methylester (l-NAME), a competitive NOS inhibitor, or S-methylisothiourea hemisulfate (SMT), an iNOS inhibitor, was administered intraperitoneally for 13 consecutive days. The total number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated UTP nick end labeling-positive cells counted in the thalamus was found to be significantly decreased by chronic treatment of l-NAME or SMT, whereas neither the neuronal accumulation of ceroid-lipofuscin nor the microglial phagocytic activity was affected by these treatments. Moreover, the chronic treatment of l-NAME or SMT completely suppressed hemorrhage-necrotic changes in the small intestine of CD-/- mice, resulting in normal growth of the body weight of the mice. These results suggest that NO production via iNOS activity in microglia and peripheral macrophages contributes to secondary tissue damages such as neuronal apoptosis and intestinal necrosis, respectively.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Crystal structure of an enzyme-substrate complex provides insight into the interaction between human arylsulfatase A and its substrates during catalysis.

Arylsulfatase A (ASA) belongs to the sulfatase family whose members carry a C(alpha)-formylglycine that is post-translationally generated by oxidation of a conserved cysteine or serine residue. The crystal structures of two arylsulfatases, ASA and ASB, and kinetic studies on ASA mutants led to different proposals for the catalytic mechanism in the hydrolysis of sulfate esters. The structures of two ASA mutants that lack the functional C(alpha)-formylglycine residue 69, in complex with a synthetic substrate, have been determined in order to unravel the reaction mechanism. The crystal structure of the inactive mutant C69A-ASA in complex with p-nitrocatechol sulfate (pNCS) mimics a reaction intermediate during sulfate ester hydrolysis by the active enzyme, without the covalent bond to the key side-chain FGly69. The structure shows that the side-chains of lysine 123, lysine 302, serine 150, histidine 229, the main-chain of the key residue 69 and the divalent cation in the active center are involved in sulfate binding. It is proposed that histidine 229 protonates the leaving alcoholate after hydrolysis.C69S-ASA is able to bind covalently to the substrate and hydrolyze it, but is unable to release the resulting sulfate. Nevertheless, the resulting sulfation is low. The structure of C69S-ASA shows the serine side-chain in a single conformation, turned away from the position a substrate occupies in the complex. This suggests that the double conformation observed in the structure of wild-type ASA is more likely to correspond to a formylglycine hydrate than to a twofold disordered aldehyde oxo group, and accounts for the relative inertness of the C69S-ASA mutant. In the C69S-ASA-pNCS complex, the substrate occupies the same position as in the C69A-ASA-pNCS complex, which corresponds to the non-covalently bonded substrate. Based on the structural data, a detailed mechanism for sulfate ester cleavage is proposed, involving an aldehyde hydrate as the functional group.

Alanine↗

PubMed2001

1.3 A structure of arylsulfatase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa establishes the catalytic mechanism of sulfate ester cleavage in the sulfatase family.

BACKGROUND: Sulfatases constitute a family of enzymes with a highly conserved active site region including a Calpha-formylglycine that is posttranslationally generated by the oxidation of a conserved cysteine or serine residue. The crystal structures of two human arylsulfatases, ASA and ASB, along with ASA mutants and their complexes led to different proposals for the catalytic mechanism in the hydrolysis of sulfate esters. RESULTS: The crystal structure of a bacterial sulfatase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAS) has been determined at 1.3 A. Fold and active site region are strikingly similar to those of the known human sulfatases. The structure allows a precise determination of the active site region, unequivocally showing the presence of a Calpha-formylglycine hydrate as the key catalytic residue. Furthermore, the cation located in the active site is unambiguously characterized as calcium by both its B value and the geometry of its coordination sphere. The active site contains a noncovalently bonded sulfate that occupies the same position as the one in para-nitrocatecholsulfate in previously studied ASA complexes. CONCLUSIONS: The structure of PAS shows that the resting state of the key catalytic residue in sulfatases is a formylglycine hydrate. These structural data establish a mechanism for sulfate ester cleavage involving an aldehyde hydrate as the functional group that initiates the reaction through a nucleophilic attack on the sulfur atom in the substrate. The alcohol is eliminated from a reaction intermediate containing pentacoordinated sulfur. Subsequent elimination of the sulfate regenerates the aldehyde, which is again hydrated. The metal cation involved in stabilizing the charge and anchoring the substrate during catalysis is established as calcium.

Arylsulfatases↗

PubMed2001

Disease model: LAMP-2 enlightens Danon disease.

Danon disease ('lysosomal glycogen storage disease with normal acid maltase') is characterized by a cardiomyopathy, myopathy and variable mental retardation. Mutations in the coding sequence of the lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP-2) were shown to cause a LAMP-2 deficiency in patients with Danon disease. LAMP-2 deficient mice manifest a similar vacuolar cardioskeletal myopathy. In addition to the patient reports LAMP-2 deficiency in mice causes pancreatic, hepatocytic, endothelial and leucocyte vacuolation. LAMP-2 deficient mice represent a valuable animal model of Danon disease. They will further be used to study the exact role of LAMP-2 in autophagy and to analyse the consequences of an impaired autophagic pathway in various tissues.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Complementation cloning identifies CDG-IIc, a new type of congenital disorders of glycosylation, as a GDP-fucose transporter deficiency.

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) comprise a rapidly growing group of inherited disorders in which glycosylation of glycoproteins is defective due to mutations in genes required for the assembly of lipid-linked oligosaccharides, their transfer to nascent glycoproteins (CDG-I) or the processing of protein-bound glycans (CDG-II). Previously' a defect in the GDP-fucose import into the lumen of the Golgi was identified in a person with CDG (A.C.) with a general deficiency of fucosyl residues in glycoproteins. This patient presents the clinical features of leukocyte adhesion deficiency type II (LAD II) including mental retardation, short stature, facial stigmata, and recurrent bacterial peripheral infections with persistently elevated peripheral leukocytes. Using a fucose-specific, lectin-staining procedure for detection of fucosylated glycoproteins and a retroviral cDNA library, we isolated a cDNA complementing the fucosylation defect in the patient's fibroblasts. The cDNA encodes a highly hydrophobic protein of 364 amino acids with multiple putative transmembrane domains. Restoration of GDP-fucose import activity in Golgi-enriched vesicles from the patient's fibroblasts verified the GDP-fucose transporter activity of this protein. We identified two missense mutations in the GDP-fucose transporter cDNA of patient A.C. and of two other people with LAD II. Thus complementation cloning allowed us to identify the human GDP-fucose transporter cDNA and GDP-fucose transporter deficiency as a cause for a new type of CDG. Following the recent recommendations for the nomenclature for CDG, this new type is classified as CDG-IIc (formerly LAD II).

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

Overlapping functions of lysosomal acid phosphatase (LAP) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (Acp5) revealed by doubly deficient mice.

To date, two lysosomal acid phosphatases are known to be expressed in cells of the monocyte/phagocyte lineage: the ubiquitously expressed lysosomal acid phosphatase (LAP) and the tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-type 5 (Acp5). Deficiency of either acid phosphatase results in relatively mild phenotypes, suggesting that these enzymes may be capable of mutual complementation. This prompted us to generate LAP/Acp5 doubly deficient mice. LAP/Acp5 doubly deficient mice are viable and fertile but display marked alterations in soft and mineralised tissues. They are characterised by a progressive hepatosplenomegaly, gait disturbances and exaggerated foreshortening of long bones. Histologically, these animals are distinguished by an excessive lysosomal storage in macrophages of the liver, spleen, bone marrow, kidney and by altered growth plates. Microscopic analyses showed an accumulation of osteopontin adjacent to actively resorbing osteoclasts of Acp5- and LAP/Acp5-deficient mice. In osteoclasts of phosphatase-deficient mice, vacuoles were frequently found which contained fine filamentous material. The vacuoles in Acp5- and LAP/Acp5 doubly-deficient osteoclasts also contained crystallite-like features, as well as osteopontin, suggesting that Acp5 is important for processing of this protein. This is further supported by biochemical analyses that demonstrate strongly reduced dephosphorylation of osteopontin incubated with LAP/Acp5-deficient bone extracts. Fibroblasts derived from LAP/Acp5 deficient embryos were still able to dephosphorylate mannose 6-phosphate residues of endocytosed arylsulfatase A. We conclude that for several substrates LAP and Acp5 can substitute for each other and that these acid phosphatases are essential for processing of non-collagenous proteins, including osteopontin, by osteoclasts.

Acid Phosphatase↗

PubMed2001

Mu 1A deficiency induces a profound increase in MPR300/IGF-II receptor internalization rate.

The mannose-6-phosphate/IGF-II receptor MPR300 mediates sorting of lysosomal enzymes from the trans-Golgi network to endosomes and endocytosis of hormones, for example, of IGF-II. We analyzed transport of MPR300 in mu1A-adaptin-deficient fibroblasts, which lack a functional AP-1 clathrin adaptor complex. In mu1A-adaptin-deficient fibroblasts, the homologous MPR46 accumulates in endosomes due to a block in retrograde transport to the trans-Golgi network. The MPR300-mediated endocytosis is markedly enhanced. We demonstrate that the seven-fold increase in endocytosis is not associated with an increased steady-state concentration of receptors at the plasma membrane, but with an increased internalization rate of MPR300. Internalization of other receptors that are also endocytosed by AP-2 is not affected. More MPR300 receptors are found in clathrin-coated pits of the plasma membrane, whereas outside coated-areas, more MPR300 are concentrated in clusters and all intracellular receptors reside in endosomes, which are in equilibrium with the plasma membrane. Thus AP-1-mediated transport of MPR300 from endosomes to the TGN controls indirectly the recycling rate of the receptor between the plasma membrane and endosomes.

Adaptor Protein Complex 1↗

PubMed2000

Endocytosis of insulin-like growth factor II by a mini-receptor based on repeat 11 of the mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor.

The mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor (M6P/IGF-II receptor) plays an important role in controlling the extracellular level of the insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) by mediating its binding at the cell surface and delivery to lysosomes. Loss of the receptor is associated with an accumulation of IGF-II, which can cause perinatal lethality if it is systemic, or local proliferation and tumorgenesis if it is spatially restricted. The extracytoplasmic domain of the receptor consists of 15 homologous repeats, of which repeat 11 carries the IGF-II-binding site of the multifunctional receptor. To investigate whether repeat 11 is sufficient to mediate binding and internalization of IGF-II, a construct consisting of repeat 11 fused to the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domain of the M6P/IGF-II receptor was transfected into mouse embryonic fibroblasts. The construct was expressed as a stable membrane protein which binds IGF-II with a 10-fold lower affinity as observed for the M6P/IGF-II receptor and is found at the cell surface and in endosomes. It mediates the internalization of IGF-II and its delivery to lysosomes, suggesting that it can function as a IGF-II mini-receptor controlling the extracellular IGF-II level.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Binding of AP2 to sorting signals is modulated by AP2 phosphorylation.

The two clathrin-associated adaptor complexes AP1 and AP2 are known to participate in the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles at the trans-Golgi network and at the plasma membrane. During this process adaptors are involved in the sequestration of vesicle cargo by binding to the sorting signals within the cytoplasmic domains of the cargo proteins and in the recruitment of the clathrin coat. After budding of the clathrin-coated vesicles, the clathrin and adaptors dissociate from the vesicles. Here we show that in vitro binding of AP2 to sorting signals, which is one of the initial steps in receptor-mediated endocytosis, is modulated by adaptor phosphorylation. AP2 was phosphorylated by incubating purified AP2 in the presence of ATP and dephosphorylated by incubation with alkaline phosphatase. Affinity for tyrosine-, leucine-based and noncanonical sorting motifs was 15-33 times higher for phosphorylated than for dephosphorylated AP2. Also the binding of AP2 to membranes was regulated by adaptor phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and was about 8-fold higher for phosphorylated than for dephosphorylated AP2. Moreover, AP2 isolated from cytosol is higher phosphorylated than membrane-extracted and exhibits a 5-fold higher binding affinity than AP2 extracted from membranes. Taken together these data point to a cycle of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation as a mechanism for regulating the reversible association of AP2 with membranes and sorting signals during the process of receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Adaptor Protein Complex 1↗

PubMed2000

Cathepsin D deficiency induces lysosomal storage with ceroid lipofuscin in mouse CNS neurons.

Cathepsin D-deficient (CD-/-) mice have been shown to manifest seizures and become blind near the terminal stage [approximately postnatal day (P) 26]. We therefore examined the morphological, immunocytochemical, and biochemical features of CNS tissues of these mice. By electron microscopy, autophagosome/autolysosome-like bodies containing part of the cytoplasm, granular osmiophilic deposits, and fingerprint profiles were demonstrated in the neuronal perikarya of CD-/- mouse brains after P20. Autophagosomes and granular osmiophilic deposits were detected in neurons at P0 but were few in number, whereas they increased in the neuronal perikarya within days after birth. Some large-sized neurons having autophagosome/autolysosome-like bodies in the perikarya appeared in the CNS tissues, especially in the thalamic region and the cerebral cortex, at P17. These lysosomal bodies occupied the perikarya of almost all neurons in CD-/- mouse brains obtained from P23 until the terminal stage. Because these neurons exhibited autofluorescence, it was considered that ceroid lipofuscin may accumulate in lysosomal structures of CD-/- neurons. Subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase was found to accumulate in the lysosomes of neurons, although the activity of tripeptidyl peptidase-I significantly increased in the brain. Moreover, neurons near the terminal stage were often shrunken and possessed irregular nuclei through which small dense chromatin masses were scattered. These results suggest that the CNS neurons in CD-/- mice show a new form of lysosomal accumulation disease with a phenotype resembling neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2000

Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and cardiomyopathy in LAMP-2-deficient mice.

Lysosome-associated membrane protein-2 (LAMP-2) is a highly glycosylated protein and an important constituent of the lysosomal membrane. Here we show that LAMP-2 deficiency in mice increases mortality between 20 and 40 days of age. The surviving mice are fertile and have an almost normal life span. Ultrastructurally, there is extensive accumulation of autophagic vacuoles in many tissues including liver, pancreas, spleen, kidney and skeletal and heart muscle. In hepatocytes, the autophagic degradation of long-lived proteins is severely impaired. Cardiac myocytes are ultrastructurally abnormal and heart contractility is severely reduced. These findings indicate that LAMP-2 is critical for autophagy. This theory is further substantiated by the finding that human LAMP-2 deficiency causing Danon's disease is associated with the accumulation of autophagic material in striated myocytes.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2000

mu1A-adaptin-deficient mice: lethality, loss of AP-1 binding and rerouting of mannose 6-phosphate receptors.

The heterotetrameric AP-1 complex is involved in the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and interacts with sorting signals in the cytoplasmic tails of cargo molecules. Targeted disruption of the mouse mu1A-adaptin gene causes embryonic lethality at day 13.5. In cells deficient in micro1A-adaptin the remaining AP-1 adaptins do not bind to the TGN. Polarized epithelial cells are the only cells of micro1A-adaptin-deficient embryos that show gamma-adaptin binding to membranes, indicating the formation of an epithelial specific AP-1B complex and demonstrating the absence of additional mu1A homologs. Mannose 6-phosphate receptors are cargo molecules that exit the TGN via AP-1-clathrin-coated vesicles. The steady-state distribution of the mannose 6-phosphate receptors MPR46 and MPR300 in mu1A-deficient cells is shifted to endosomes at the expense of the TGN. MPR46 fails to recycle back from the endosome to the TGN, indicating that AP-1 is required for retrograde endosome to TGN transport of the receptor.

Adaptor Protein Complex 1↗

PubMed2000

Function and properties of chimeric MPR 46-MPR 300 mannose 6-phosphate receptors.

The two known mannose 6-phosphate receptors (MPR 46 and MPR 300) mediate the transport of mannose 6-phosphate-containing lysosomal proteins to lysosomes. Endocytosis of extracellular mannose 6-phosphate ligands can only be mediated by MPR 300. Neither type of MPR appears to be sufficient for targetting the full complement of lysosomal enzymes to lysosomes. The complements of lysosomal enzymes transported by either of the two receptors are distinct but largely overlapping. Chimeric receptors were constructed in which the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of the two receptors were systematically exchanged. After expression of the chimeric receptors in cells lacking endogenous MPRs the binding of ligands, the subcellular distribution and the sorting efficiency for lysosomal enzymes were analyzed. All chimeras were functional, and their subcellular distribution was similar to that of wild type MPRs. The ability to endocytose lysosomal enzymes was restricted to receptors with the lumenal domain of MPR 300. The efficiency to sort lysosomal enzymes correlated with the lumenal and cytoplasmic domains of MPR 300. In contrast to the wild type receptors, a significant fraction of most of the chimeric receptors was misrouted to lysosomes, indicating that the signals determining the routing of MPRs have been fitted for the parent receptor polypeptides.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Functions of cathepsin K in bone resorption. Lessons from cathepsin K deficient mice.

Cathepsin K is a cysteine proteinase expressed predominantly in osteoclasts. Cathepsin K cleaves key bone matrix proteins and is believed to play an important role in degrading the organic phase of bone during bone resorption. Pycnodysostosis, an autosomal recessive osteosclerosing skeletal disorder has recently been shown to result from mutations in the cathepsin K gene. Cathepsin K deficient mice generated by targeted disruption of this proteinase phenocopy many aspects of pycnodysostosis. They display an osteopetrotic phenotype with excessive trabeculation of the bone-marrow space accompanied by an altered ultrastructural appearance of the cathepsin K deficient osteoclasts. These cells also demonstrate an impaired resorptive activity in vitro. In contrast to other forms of osteopetrosis, which are due to disrupted osteoclastogenesis, cathepsin K deficiency is associated with an inhibition of osteoclast activity. Taken together the phenotype of cathepsin K knockout mice underlines the importance of this proteinase in bone remodelling.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Conserved cassette structure of vertebrate Mr 300 kDa mannose 6-phosphate receptors: partial cDNA sequence of fish MPR 300.

The existence of two homologous mannose 6-phosphate receptors (MPRs) with overlapping, but distinct functions has raised the question of at what stage in the phylogenetic tree the two receptors have occurred for the first time. In this paper, we present a partial cDNA sequence of Mr 300 kDa MPR (MPR 300) from poeciliid fish (Xiphophorus). It contains a 5'-untranslated region followed by the initiator ATG, and an open reading frame that corresponds to cassettes 1-5 and part of cassette 6 of mammalian MPR 300. The size of the mRNA transcript for fish MPR 300 was comparable with that of other vertebrates. The amino acid sequence of fish MPR 300 displays 48-52% similarity with mammalian and chicken MPR 300. In particular, all the cysteine residues involved in disulfide bonding and an arginine residue, which is considered to be part of the mannose 6-phosphate binding site in cassette 3 of mammalian MPR 300, are conserved. Sequence similarities were significantly higher within cassette 3 and within cassette 5, to which a ligand-binding function has not yet been ascribed. Sequence similarities of the internal cassettes of MPR 300 are discussed with regard to the multifunctional nature of MPR 300.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2000

The dileucine motif within the tail of MPR46 is required for sorting of the receptor in endosomes.

The cytoplasmic tail of MPR46 carries a leucine-based motif that is required for the sorting of lysosomal enzymes by the receptor. In addition, it is one of three independent, but functionally redundant, internalization signals present in the cytoplasmic tail of MPR46. We have analyzed a mutant of MPR46, in which the dileucine pair was replaced by alanines (MPR46 LL/AA) with respect to its intracellular distribution and trafficking. Ultrastructural analysis of cells expressing the MPR46 LL/AA mutant revealed that the substitution of the dileucine pair causes a shift of the receptor distribution from the TGN, where it is packaged into AP1-containing vesicles, to vesicular structures distributed throughout the cytoplasm. The vesicles could be identified as early endosomes with internalized BSA-gold and rab5 as markers. By analyzing the receptor trafficking biochemically, we found that return of the LL/AA mutant receptor from the plasma membrane/endosome pool back to the TGN was impaired, while recycling from endosomes to the plasma membrane was enhanced. In conclusion, our data indicate that the dileucine motif in the MPR46 tail is required for a sorting event in endosomes.

Amino Acid Motifs↗