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J Peters

Publications and source records attributed to J Peters.

At least 235 records · Page 13Linked to original sources
PubMed1998

[Effect of protamine on the microbicidal efficacy of formaldehyde].

Testing the ability of commercial compounds to provide an effective disinfection of instruments requires test conditions that are close to reality which includes the proper selection of the material used to contaminate the test objects. The adhesion of the material must be strong enough to keep it attached to the test object during and after insertion into the disinfectant solution. Its characteristics should come as close as possible to those of the contaminations encountered in practice. The guideline for instrument disinfectants published by the Robert Koch-Institute recommends the use of coagulated blood. Accordingly, heparinized sheep blood is mixed with the test germs, and protamin is added to initiate coagulation. In the present investigation we compared this contamination procedure with a second one, in which coagulation was achieved by adding a CaCl2 solution to citrate blood. We also included agarose as an almost inert contaminant in our experiments. The results showed that protamine is able to increase the microbicidal efficacy of formaldehyde on staphylococci significantly. When these test germs were embedded either in citrat blood or in agarose, it took about twice the disinfectant concentrations to achieve the same microbicidal effects as with protamine blood (Fig. 1). Remarkably, the results obtained with citrate blood were the same as those with agarose, regardless of the differences in material between the two contaminants. It should also be noted that the microbicidal effect of the formaldehyde proved to be almost independent from the amount of contaminant per test area, hence, from the thickness of the layer. When M. terrae was employed as test germ, the results obtained with protamine blood and citrate blood, respectively, as contaminants were identical (Fig. 2). The same was true for the other test germs investigated, except for E. faecium (Fig. 3). The addition of even very small amounts of protamine to the embedding compound, agarose led to a substantially increased efficacy of the formaldehyde against staphylococci (Fig. 4). This effect was especially distinct in suspension (Fig. 5). Whenever the efficacy of formaldehyde-containing disinfectants is to be tested and evaluated, one should be aware of this synergism between protamine and formaldehyde. In these cases, it is advised to employ other contaminating agents, such as coagulated blood prepared by addition of CaCl2 to citrate blood.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Model tests for the efficacy of disinfectants on surfaces. IV. Communication: dependence of test results on the amount of contamination and the kind of active substance.

In the assessment of efficacy of surface disinfectants, many influencing factors have to be taken into account. One essential item is whether the surface to be disinfected is clean or soiled. Among the feasible soilings, the blood is of particular consequences because it ads impediments to many disinfecting agents. This paper shows to what extent the impairment of the efficacy of typical active agents depends on the blood burden of the surfaces. Therefore, test surfaces (varnished plywood) were contaminated with 0.01 to 0.08 ml of coagulating blood per test area (3 cm2). The blood contained cells of Staphylococcus aureus as test germs. The disinfection was effected by immersing the test objects in the disinfecting solution for 5 seconds and mingling the adhering disinfecting solution (about 0.02 ml) with the coagulated blood on the test surface with a glass spatula for about 20 seconds. Subsequently, the test objects remained in a horizontal position at room conditions for 4 hours and then the numbers of surviving test germs were determined. The graphical representation of the results shows that the efficacy curves of formaldehyde and phenol lie very closely together, i.e. their effect is hardly impaired by the different blood burdens of the test areas. The efficacy curves of glutaraldehyde, peracetic acid, chloramine T, and quaternary ammonium compounds lie very far apart from each other. To achieve the same microbicidal effect (log N/N0 = -5) when the contaminating amount is raised from 10 microliters/3 cm2 to 80 microliters/3 cm2, the concentration of chloramine T has to be raised by a factor of 5.4, peracetic acid by a factor of 9, glutaraldehyde by a factor of 24, quaternary ammonium compound even by a factor of 67. Ethanol and sodium hypochlorite showed a divergent behaviour. For ethanol, the efficacy diminution produced by increasing the contamination amount by a factor of 4 can be compensated by raising the concentration from 50% to about 70%. But again and again, there were test objects on which the number of germs able to reproduce had only been lowered by a factor of about 10(-3). At the highest contamination of 80 microliters/3 cm2, even 95% ethanol proved to be completely insufficient. With sodium hypochlorite even at the lowest contamination of 10 microliters/3 cm2, a microbicidal effect of only about 10(-5) was obtained. With increasing contamination, the highest achievable microbicidal effect clearly decreased. It is remarkable that the microbicidal effect of this active agent decreased with increasing concentrations. The results show how important it is in testing the efficacy of disinfecting agents to exactly lay down the amount of contaminating substances. To find out how safely an agent works under harder circumstances, the dependence of the microbicidal effect from the amount of contaminating substances per test area has to be determined.

Blood↗
PubMed1997

Genetic and functional analysis of neuronatin in mice with maternal or paternal duplication of distal Chr 2.

Functional differences between parental genomes are due to differential expression of parental alleles of imprinted genes. Neuronatin (Nnat) is a recently identified paternally expressed imprinted gene that is initially expressed in the rhombomeres and pituitary gland and later more widely in the central and peripheral nervous system mainly in postmitotic and differentiating neuroepithelial cells. Nnat maps to distal chromosome (Chr) 2, which contains an imprinting region that causes morphological abnormalities and early neonatal lethality. More detailed mapping analysis of Nnat showed that it is located between the T26H and T2Wa translocation breakpoints which is, surprisingly, proximal to the reported imprinting region between the T2Wa and T28H translocation breakpoints, suggesting that there may be two distinct imprinting regions on distal chromosome 2. To investigate the potential role of Nnat, we compared normal embryos with those which were PatDp.dist2.T26H (paternal duplication/maternal deficiency of chromosome 2 distal to the translocation breakpoint T26H) and MatDp.dist2.T26H. Expression of Nnat was detected in the PatDp.dist2.T26H embryos, where both copies of Nnat are paternally inherited, and normal embryos but no expression was detected in the MatDp.dist2.T26H embryos with the two maternally inherited copies. The differential expression of Nnat was supported by DNA methylation analysis with the paternally inherited alleles being unmethylated and the maternal alleles fully methylated. Although experimental embryos appeared grossly similar phenotypically in the structures where expression of Nnat was detected, differences in folding of the cerebellum were observed in neonates, and other more subtle developmental or behavioral effects due to gain or loss of Nnat cannot be ruled out.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The effect of delayed analysis or freeze-thawing on the measurement of natural anticoagulants, resistance to activated protein C and markers of activation of the haemostatic system.

We provide a centralised thrombophilia screening service with sample transfer by courier or first class mail, a practice common to many centres. Sample quality is of prime importance, thus we have assessed the effect of delayed sample handling upon the haemostatic variables within our thrombophilia profile. This comprises screening for familial natural anticoagulant deficiency and APC resistance (1-4), and acquired lupus anticoagulant (5,6). The effect upon hypercoagulable markers were also assessed to facilitate evaluation of these in prospective clinical studies (7).

Anticoagulants↗
PubMed1997

Swelling and damage of glial cells by lactacidosis and glutamate: effect of alpha-trinositol.

The therapeutical efficacy of alpha-trinositol (D-myo-inositol-1,2,6-trisphosphate), an isomer of the intracellular messenger IP3, was analyzed on cytotoxic swelling and damage of glial cells in vitro from lactacidosis or glutamate. C6 glioma cells suspended in a physiological medium were either exposed to pH 5.0 by administration of lactic acid, or to 1 mM glutamate. Cell swelling and viability were quantified by flow cytometry. Lactacidosis of pH 5.0 led to an increase in cell volume to 139.7 +/- 1.3% within 20 min whereas alpha-trinositol was reducing the swelling response by approximately 25% (P < 0.01). In addition, at pH 5.0 the fraction of viable cells was lowered from 94.3 +/- 0.2% (control) to only 53.8 +/- 3.1% after 60 min. Alpha-trinositol was found to protect also cell viability; at 60 min of lactacidosis 70.2 +/- 1.6% of the cells still were viable (P < 0.01). The addition of glutamate (1 mM) to the cell suspension led to a steady increase in cell size, reaching 110% of control at 120 min, irrespectively of whether alpha-trinositol was added or not.

Acidosis, Lactic↗
PubMed1997

Renin-1 is essential for normal renal juxtaglomerular cell granulation and macula densa morphology.

The secretion of renin from granules stored in renal juxtaglomerular cells plays a key role in blood pressure homeostasis. The synthesis and release of renin and the extent of granulation is regulated by several mechanisms including signaling from the macula densa, neuronal input, and blood pressure. Through the use of a gene-targeting vector containing homology arms generated using the polymerase chain reaction, we have inactivated the Ren-1(d) gene, one of two mouse genes encoding renin, and report that lack of renin-1(d) results in altered morphology of the macula densa of the kidney distal tubule and complete absence of juxtaglomerular cell granulation. Furthermore, Ren-1(d-/-) mice exhibit sexually dimorphic hypotension. The altered growth morphology of the macula densa in Ren-1(d)-null mice should provide a tool for the investigation of the JG cell-macula densa signaling. Furthermore, the current data indicate that expression of the Ren-1(d) gene is a prerequisite for the formation of storage granules, even though the related protein renin-2 is present in these mice, suggesting that renin-1(d) and renin-2 are secreted by distinct pathways in vivo.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

A transcript map encompassing the multiple endocrine neoplasia type-1 (MEN1) locus on chromosome 11q13.

A transcription map of a 1200-kb region encompassing the MEN1 locus was constructed by direct cDNA selection and mapping ESTs. A total of 29 genes were mapped. Ten transcripts were identified by cDNA selection of a focused 300-kb genomic region telomeric to the MEN1 consensus region. Since many of the sequences cloned by cDNA selection also identified ESTs from the region, 19 additional RH-mapped ESTs were mapped to the entire contig region by PCR amplification of genomic clones. Nine known genes, 2 putative human homologues to mouse genes, and 18 novel transcripts map to the region. Transcripts that map to the MEN1 interval PYGM-D11S449 include SGC35223, IB1256, AA147620, ZFM1, FAU, and CAPN1. The latter 3 known genes have already been excluded as candidate MEN1 genes. The 2 putative human homologues of mouse genes Ltbp2 and Spa-1 may be candidate tumor suppressor genes, but they map telomeric to D11S449. Although both of these genes map outside the MEN1 consensus region they may play a role in sporadic endocrine tumors independent of the MEN1 gene or in other tumors, such as breast cancer, that have loss of heterozygosity within this region.

Blotting, Northern↗
PubMed1997

Cloning, sequencing and expression of VAT, a CDC48/p97 ATPase homologue from the archaeon Thermoplasma acidophilum.

A member of the AAA family of Mg2(+)-ATPases from the archaeon Thermoplasma acidophilum has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The protein, VCP-like ATPase of Thermoplasma acidophilum (VAT), is a homologue of SAV from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and CdcH of Halobacterium salinarium, and belongs to the CDC48/VCP/p97 subfamily. The deduced product of the vat gene is 745 residues long (Mr 83,000), which has an optimal Mg2(+)-ATPase activity at 70 degrees C. Electron microscopy shows the purified protein to form single and double homo-hexameric rings. Although the symmetry is different, the appearance of the complexes formed of two rings resembles the 20S proteasome and Hsp60/GroEL.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗
PubMed1997

Retroperitoneal and intraperitoneal CO2 insufflation have markedly different cardiovascular effects.

Both retroperitoneoscopic and laparoscopic surgical approaches to kidney and adrenal gland have been reported but their cardiopulmonary pathophysiology has been incompletely characterized. To test the hypothesis that these approaches have markedly different impact on the circulatory and respiratory systems, we assessed at similar insufflation pressures alterations in cardiovascular and respiratory variables during retroperitoneal and intraperitoneal CO2 insufflation. Eighteen healthy, anesthetized (propofol, alfentanil, vecuronium), mechanically ventilated pigs were randomly instrumented for either retroperitoneoscopic (n = 9) or laparoscopic (n = 9) surgery. After CO2 insufflation cardiovascular and respiratory variables were measured at four cavity pressures (baseline, 10, 15, and 20 mmHg), while end-expiratory CO2 tension was maintained by adjusting tidal volume. Data were analyzed for both insufflation-pressure-dependent and group effects by one-way and two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements, respectively, followed by Newman-Keuls post hoc test (P < 0.05). Cardiac output, mean arterial, pulmonary artery, central venous, and femoral venous pressures increased significantly in both groups in an insufflation-pressure-dependent fashion. However, changes in cardiac output (P < 0.001), pulmonary artery (P < 0.007), central venous (P < 0.001), and iliac venous pressures (P < 0.001) for the same insufflation pressure were markedly and significantly greater with intraperitoneal than retroperitoneal CO2 insufflation. Most important, intraperitoneal unlike retroperitoneal insufflation induced a marked inferior vena caval pressure gradient (8.9 +/- 1.1 mmHg vs 1.0 +/- 0.5 mmHg, P < 0.00001). While both retroperitoneal and intraperitoneal CO2 insufflation required increased tidal volumes to adjust endtidal CO2 tension to baseline, intraperitoneal CO2 insufflation resulted in a significantly greater increase of mixed venous and arterial carbon dioxide tensions (P < 0.007) even at similar insufflation pressures. Furthermore, significantly greater peak airway pressures (P = 0.018) were required with intraperitoneal than with retroperitoneal insufflation to administer the same tidal volume, indicating a greater decrease in quasi-static compliance with intraperitoneal insufflation (P = 0.0436). Thus, (i) cardiovascular and respiratory changes are much less during retroperitoneal than intraperitoneal CO2 insufflation, even at the same insufflation pressures, and (ii) retroperitoneal CO2 insufflation unlike intraabdominal CO2 insufflation does not induce an inferior vena caval pressure gradient and hence does not appear to impair systemic lower body venous return up to insufflation pressures of 20 mmHg.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Role of calcium ions in acidosis-induced glial swelling.

Tissue acidosis occurring in cerebral ischemia and traumatic brain injury is a mediator of cytotoxic brain edema. In vitro, extracellular lactacidosis induces swelling of glial cells in a dose dependent manner. pH-regulatory membrane transporters and channels have been identified which are involved in the increase of the glial cell volume. Underlying mechanisms of their activation are poorly understood, however. We have, therefore, addressed the question, whether and how Ca(2+)-ions play a role in acidosis-induced glial swelling and intracellular acidification. For that purpose C6 glioma cells were suspended and the pH in the medium was lowered from 7.4 (baseline) to 6.2 by isotonic lactic acid. Cell volume and intracellular pH (pHi) were assessed by flow cytometry. In the presence of Ca(2+)-ions the cell volume reached a maximum of 125.1% from acidosis. In experiments using a calcium-free suspension medium, cell swelling from acidosis was inhibited by 74%. Additional buffering of intracellular calcium (Ca2+i) had no further inhibitory effect on acidosis-induced cell swelling, while buffering of Ca2+i by BAPTA-AM alone did not affect the glial volume increase secondary to administration of lactic acid. pHi which was decreasing from acidosis was not affected by the experimental modifications of the Ca(2+)-concentration in the medium or cytosol. The present data indicate that lactacidosis-induced glial swelling depends on the presence of extracellular Ca(2+)-ions, while release of Ca(2+)-ions from intracellular stores does not seem to be involved.

Acidosis↗
PubMed1997

Effect of alpha-trinositol on swelling and damage of glial cells by lactacidosis and glutamate.

The therapeutic efficacy of alpha-trinositol (D-myo-inositol-1,2,6-trisphosphate), an isomer of the intracellular messenger IP3, was analyzed for cytotoxic swelling and damage of glial cells in vitro from lactacidosis or glutamate. Lactacidosis and the interstitial accumulation of glutamate are prominent sequelae in ischemic or traumatic brain tissue. C6 glioma cells harvested from culture and suspended in a physiological medium were either exposed to pH 5.0 by administration of lactic acid, or to 1 mM glutamate at normal pH. Cell swelling and viability were quantified by blood flow cytometry. Addition of alpha-trinositol (3 mM) under control conditions at pH 7.4 resulted in transient cell shrinking to 96.5 +/- 1.3% of control within 3 min (p < 0.05). Lactacidosis of pH 5.0 led to an increase in cell volume to 139.7 +/- 1.3% within 20 min, whereas alpha-trinositol reduced the swelling response by approximately 25% (p < 0.01). In addition, cell viability was severely affected at pH 5.0 amounting to only 53.8 +/- 3.1% after 60 min. alpha-Trinositol was found to markedly improve cell viability; at 60 min 70.2 +/- 1.6% of the cells were still viable (p < 0.01). Addition of glutamate (1 mM) led to a steady increase in cell size, reaching 110% of control after 120 min, irrespective of wether alpha-trinositol was present or not. The attenuation of cell swelling may be attributed to an interference with pH-regulatory mechanisms, such as the Na+/H(+)-antiporter, while protection of cell viability might be caused be effects of alpha-trinositol on Ca(2+)-overload. On the other hand, the increase in cell volume by glutamate associated with its intracellular uptake was not influenced by alpha-trinositol.

Acidosis, Lactic↗
PubMed1997

Effect of mild and moderate hypothermia on the acidosis-induced swelling of glial cells.

The effect of mild (32 degrees C) and moderate (27 degrees C) hypothermia was analyzed on the cell volume and intracellular pH (pHi) of C6 glioma cells at normal pH and during lactacidosis at pH 6.2 in vitro. The cells were suspended in an incubation chamber under continuous control of pH, PO2 and temperature. Cell swelling was quantified by an advanced Coulter-system. pHi was measured by flow cytometry using the fluorescent dye bis-carboxyethyl carboxyfluorescein (BCECF). Following a control period at 37 degrees C, the ambient temperature was decreased to 32 degrees C for 30 min, and subsequently to 27 degrees C for another 30 min. Hypothermia alone led to an immediate and significant cell volume increase of 107.3 +/- 0.4% (mean +/- SEM) of control after 30 min at 32 degrees C, and further swelling to 110.5 +/- 0.9% after 30 min at 27 degrees C. Yet, hypothermia (27 degrees C) afforded partial protection against the acidosis-induced cell swelling at pH 6.2, which was reaching to 120.4 +/- 0.9% in the normothermic control group after 60 min, while only to 111.3 +/- 0.9% at 27 degrees C. Hypothermia, however, was associated with a more pronounced decrease of the pHi during acidosis (6.3 +/- 0.04) as compared to that of the normothermic control falling then to 6.5 +/- 0.03. The results demonstrate that mild and moderate hypothermia induce glial cell swelling, but simultaneously inhibit cell swelling from acidosis. The protection against cell swelling, however, has its price as indicated by the enhancement of the intracellular acidification.

Acidosis, Lactic↗
PubMed1997

Hemofiltration increases IL-6 clearance in early systemic inflammatory response syndrome but does not alter IL-6 and TNF alpha plasma concentrations.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that continuous hemofiltration increases interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) clearances and results in decreased cytokine plasma concentrations independent of renal function in patients with early SIRS. DESIGN: Prospective, controlled, randomized study. SETTING: Intensive care units at a university hospital. PATIENTS: 28 consecutive patients who fulfilled the criteria of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). INTERVENTIONS: Patients with SIRS were randomly assigned to either a hemofiltration or a control group irrespective of renal function. In patients of the hemofiltration group an isovolemic hemofiltration was initiated directly after the diagnosis of SIRS and maintained for at least 48 h. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: A significant (p < 0.001) increase in total IL-6 clearance (hemofiltrate + urine), but not in TNF alpha clearance, was observed with hemofiltration. However, the plasma concentrations of both cytokines remained unchanged. Hemodynamic variables did not change significantly. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous hemofiltration increases IL-6 plasma clearance but not TNF alpha clearance. However, hemofiltration failed to decrease plasma concentrations of TNF alpha and IL-6 and, therefore, cannot be used effectively for cytokine elimination in SIRS. Accordingly, beneficial effects occasionally reported with hemofiltration are unlikely to be expected due to elimination of IL-6 or TNF alpha.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Interaction between haematocrit and pulmonary blood volume on pulmonary vascular flow resistance and pressure flow relationships.

OBJECTIVE: Pulmonary vascular flow resistance depends on blood viscosity, mainly due to haematocrit, and on vessel dimensions determining blood volume in this highly compliant vascular bed. We, therefore, evaluated the interaction between haematocrit, blood flow, and transpulmonary vascular pressure gradient under conditions of controlled pulmonary blood volume. DESIGN: Experimental study in isolated zone-III rabbit lungs perfused with autologous blood. SETTING: Laboratory for experimental studies. INTERVENTIONS: Stepwise and independent variation of flow (50, 100, and 200 ml/min), pulmonary blood volume (increments of 2.5 ml and 5 ml imposed by changes of left atrial pressure), and haematocrit (0-50%) varied by haemodilution (Krebs-Henseleit/albumin) or haemoconcentration (centrifugation). MEASUREMENTS: Pulmonary arterial, left atrial, and airway pressures as well as reservoir volume (reflecting reciprocal changes of lung blood volume) and lung weight. RESULTS: Haemodilution from the normal haematocrit (32%) to 10% at constant pulmonary blood volume and flow decreased flow resistance only slightly, whereas haemoconcentration (50%) increased flow resistance up to 130%. At the same time increments of in pulmonary blood volume of 2.5 and 5 ml (approx. 15 and 30% of normal pulmonary blood volume) at constant haematocrit significantly shifted downwards pressure-flow relationships for all investigated haematocrits (0-50%). CONCLUSIONS: Because of the multiple interrelationships between haematocrit, blood flow and pulmonary blood volume, haematocrit effects on pulmonary flow resistance and pressure-flow relationships in the pulmonary vasculature should be studied at controlled blood volume. While haemodilution only has minor effects, haemoconcentration changes pressure-flow relationships markedly. Pulmonary blood volume has a major impact on slope and position of pressure-flow relationships for all haematocrits investigated.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The influence of antithrombin III (AT III) substitution to supranormal activities on systemic procoagulant turnover in patients with end-stage chronic liver disease.

OBJECTIVE: Since antithrombin III (AT III) substitution to normal activities could not be shown to have major beneficial effects in patients with end-stage chronic liver disease in a variety of clinical settings, we tested the hypothesis that substitution to supranormal activities decreases systemic procoagulant turnover better in this patient group. DESIGN: Controlled prospective clinical study. SETTING: Operating rooms at a University Hospital. PATIENTS: Twenty-four patients with histologically verified liver cirrhosis consecutively scheduled for liver transplantation. INTERVENTIONS: Nineteen patients were given an antithrombin III concentrate to achieve either 100% (n = 10) or 175% (n = 9) AT III activity. Control patients (n = 5) received saline 0.9% instead. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Molecular markers of coagulation activation, platelet count and aggregability, and global coagulation variables were measured prior to AT III infusion and 60 min thereafter. In both AT III-treated groups thrombin-antithrombin III-complex increased significantly (p < 0.005), whereas prothrombin fragment F1 + 2, soluble fibrin and D-dimer concentrations, as well as other variables, did not show major changes. CONCLUSIONS: Despite thrombin inhibition by AT III in patients with end-stage chronic liver disease, systemic procoagulant turnover was not significantly decreased 60 min after AT III application even to supranormal activities. Replenishment of the inhibitory antithrombin III pool, decreased in chronic liver disease, should not be expected to slow down the baseline consumptive component of the haemostatic disorder in this patient group.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Behavioral and functional analysis of mouse phenotype: SHIRPA, a proposed protocol for comprehensive phenotype assessment.

For an understanding of the aberrant biology seen in mouse mutations and identification of more subtle phenotype variation, there is a need for a full clinical and pathological characterization of the animals. Although there has been some use of sophisticated techniques, the majority of behavioral and functional analyses in mice have been qualitative rather than quantitative in nature. There is, however, no comprehensive routine screening and testing protocol designed to identify and characterize phenotype variation or disorders associated with the mouse genome. We have developed the SHIRPA procedure to characterize the phenotype of mice in three stages. The primary screen utilizes standard methods to provide a behavioral and functional profile by observational assessment. The secondary screen involves a comprehensive behavioral assessment battery and pathological analysis. These protocols provide the framework for a general phenotype assessment that is suitable for a wide range of applications, including the characterization of spontaneous and induced mutants, the analysis of transgenic and gene-targeted phenotypes, and the definition of variation between strains. The tertiary screening stage described is tailored to the assessment of existing or potential models of neurological disease, as well as the assessment of phenotypic variability that may be the result of unknown genetic influences. SHIRPA utilizes standardized protocols for behavioral and functional assessment that provide a sensitive measure for quantifying phenotype expression in the mouse. These paradigms can be refined to test the function of specific neural pathways, which will, in turn, contribute to a greater understanding of neurological disorders.

Animals↗