Biomedical subjects

J L Price

Publications and source records attributed to J L Price.

At least 73 records · Page 4Linked to original sources

PubMed1994

Central olfactory connections in the macaque monkey.

The connections between the olfactory bulb, primary olfactory cortex, and olfactory related areas of the orbital cortex were defined in macaque monkeys with a combination of anterograde and retrograde axonal tracers and electrophysiological recording. Anterograde tracers placed into the olfactory bulb labeled axons in eight primary olfactory cortical areas: the anterior olfactory nucleus, piriform cortex, ventral tenia tecta, olfactory tubercle, anterior cortical nucleus of the amygdala, periamygdaloid cortex, and olfactory division of the entorhinal cortex. The bulbar axons terminate in the outer part of layer I throughout these areas and are most dense in areas that are close to the lateral olfactory tract. Labeled axons also were found in the superficial part of nucleus of the horizontal diagonal band. Retrograde tracers injected into the olfactory bulb labeled cells in the nucleus of the diagonal band and in all of the primary olfactory cortical areas except the olfactory tubercle. Electrical stimulation of the olfactory bulb evoked short-latency unit responses and a characteristic field wave in the primary olfactory cortex. Multiunit activity in layer II tended to be of shorter latency than that in layer III and the endopiriform nucleus. Associational connections within the primary olfactory cortex were demonstrated with anterograde tracer injections into the piriform cortex and the entorhinal cortex. Injections into the piriform cortex near the lateral olfactory tract labeled axons in the deep part of layer I of many primary olfactory areas, but especially in areas near the tract. An injection into the rostral entorhinal cortex, distant to the lateral olfactory tract, labeled a complementary distribution of axons in deep layer I of olfactory areas medial and caudoventral to the tract. This organization resembles that reported in the primary olfactory cortex of the rat [Luskin and Price (1983) J. Comp. Neurol. 216:264-291]. The anterograde tracer injections into the piriform cortex and retrograde tracer injections into the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and rostral insula label connections from the primary olfactory cortex to nine areas in the caudal orbital cortex, including the agranular insula areas Iam, Iai, Ial, Iapm, and Iapl and areas 14c, 25, 13a, and 13m. The piriform cortex projects most heavily to layer I of these areas. Only Iam, Iapm, and 13a receive a substantial projection to the deeper layers. Areas Iam, Iapm, and 13a were also the only areas that responded with multiunit action potentials to olfactory bulb stimulation in anesthetized animals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Loss of circadian behavioral rhythms and per RNA oscillations in the Drosophila mutant timeless.

Eclosion, or emergence of adult flies from the pupa, and locomotor activity of adults occur rhythmically in Drosophila melanogaster, with a circadian period of about 24 hours. Here, a clock mutation, timeless (tim), is described that produces arrhythmia for both behaviors. The effects of tim on behavioral rhythms are likely to involve products of the X chromosome-linked clock gene period (per), because tim alters circadian oscillations of per RNA. Genetic mapping places tim on the left arm of the second chromosome between dumpy (dp) and decapentaplegic (dpp).

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Block in nuclear localization of period protein by a second clock mutation, timeless.

In wild-type Drosophila, the period protein (PER) is found in nuclei of the eyes and brain, and PER immunoreactivity oscillates with a circadian rhythm. The studies described here indicate that the nuclear localization of PER is blocked by timeless (tim), a second chromosome mutation that, like per null mutations, abolishes circadian rhythms. PER fusion proteins without a conserved domain (PAS) and some flanking sequences are nuclear in tim mutants. This suggests that a segment of PER inhibits nuclear localization in tim mutants. The tim gene may have a role in establishing rhythms of PER abundance and nuclear localization in wild-type flies.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Colocalization of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter markers in striatal projection neurons in the rat.

The principle neuronal output of the neostriatum comes from medium spiny neurons that project from the caudate/putamen to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Although current evidence generally indicates that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the principal neurotransmitter in this pathway, this cannot account for the excitatory synaptic activity present among cultures of striatal neurons or the short latency excitatory postsynaptic potentials which often proceed or obscure inhibitory activity evoked by striatal stimulation. In this study, retrograde transport of [3H]D-aspartate has been used to demonstrate striato-pallidal and striato-nigral neurons that possess a high-affinity uptake system for glutamate and aspartate and are therefore putatively glutamatergic. Injections of [3H]D-aspartate into the globus pallidus or substantia nigra, pars reticularis of the rat retrogradely labeled medium-sized neurons throughout the rostral-caudal extent of the neostriatum. To characterize this population further, adjacent sections were immunoreacted with antibodies to either GABA, glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), calbindin, or parvalbumin prior to autoradiographic processing. Under these conditions, autoradiographically labeled neurons displayed positive immunoreactivity for GABA, GAD, or calbindin. Autoradiographic label did not colocalize with parvalbumin immunoreactivity. The colocalization of anatomical markers of GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission raises the possibility that both neurotransmitters are functionally expressed within single striatal projection neurons.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Parental alienation syndrome. A developmental analysis of a vulnerable population.

1. Parental alienation syndrome is the systematic denigration by one parent of the other parent with the intent of alienating the child. 2. Parents who engage in alienating activity have experienced loss, leading to depression, anger, and aggression. The family system experiences loss during divorce and is adversely affected by the alienating activities of one parent. 3. Understanding the dynamics of parental alienation syndrome will position the nurse to recognize it as a symptom of depression and dependence, and bring care to the vulnerable population.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

The organization of projections from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus to orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys.

The organization of interconnections between the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) and the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and the agranular insular cortex in the monkey was studied by retrograde and anterograde tracing techniques. In addition to the magnocellular and parvicellular divisions of MD, three other subdivisions can be recognized on the basis of myeloarchitecture, cytoarchitecture, and connections. The first two of these represent a parcellation of the magnocellular division into a lateral, fiber-rich MD pars fibrosa and a medial, poorly myelinated MD pars paramediana adjacent to the midline. The third is a small, poorly myelinated area located at the caudomedial and dorsal edges of MD; it is referred to as MD pars caudodorsalis. MD pars fibrosa is reciprocally interconnected primarily with areas 11, 12 and 13 in the central and lateral part of the orbital cortex. There is a general organization within this projection, with the rostrocaudal axis of the cortex represented from dorsal to ventral in the pars fibrosa, and the mediolateral cortical axis represented from medial to lateral. Cells that project to area 12 also extend laterally into the adjacent pars parvicellularis. MD pars paramediana is more heavily interconnected with the caudal and medial portions of the orbital region, particularly the agranular insular areas and the caudal parts of areas 13 and 14. Cells that project to two caudal areas, 13a and Iad, do not fit with the general organization, in that they are located in the dorsomedial parts of the pars fibrosa and pars paramediana, where they overlap with cells that project to area 14. The pars fibrosa and pars paramediana receive inputs from areas of the ventral forebrain such as the amygdala, piriform (olfactory) cortex, and entorhinal cortex, which project directly to the orbital and agranular insular cortex, as well as from the ventral pallidum. MD pars caudodorsalis is reciprocally interconnected with areas 14, 24, and 32 on the medial surface of the prefrontal cortex. In this part of the nucleus the dorsoventral axis of the medial prefrontal cortex is represented from caudal to rostral in the thalamus. The amygdala and other ventral forebrain structures do not send fibers into the pars caudodorsalis, even though some of these structures project directly to the medial prefrontal cortex. Ventral to MD, and separated from it by the internal medullary lamina, a small region was recognized that appears to be comparable to the anteroventral part of the submedial nucleus previously defined in the rat and cat.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Expression and structural analysis of a teleost homolog of a mammalian zona pellucida gene.

Gene expression in oviparous vertebrates during vitellogenesis is hormonally regulated. Our laboratory has characterized a unique gene (wf female), which is seasonally expressed in the liver of the female winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus. The wf female mRNA is coexpressed with vitellogenin mRNA and reaches a high level during vitellogenesis. The wf female gene is 2554 base pairs in length and encodes a putative protein of 509 amino acids. The gene consists of eight exons separated by seven introns of different sizes. Within exon 1, there are six PQQ-rich repeats. Four of them encode a putative (PQQ)1PKY polypeptide, similar to the repeats found in the extracellular domains of other proteins. Exons 2-7 share homology with the zona pellucida protein genes rc55 of rabbit and zp-2 of mouse, and the positions of intron boundaries are conserved in the wf female and mouse zp-2 genes. In addition, the transcriptional regulatory cis elements (estrogen response element, CCAAT and TATAAA boxes), as found in vertebrate genes, are also conserved for the wf female promoter and mapped upstream from the initiation site of the wf female primary transcript.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1993

Interval cancers and sensitivity in the screening centres of the UK trial of early detection of breast cancer.

The incidence rates of interval cancers following a negative breast screen in two screening centres which offered women aged 45-64 annual screening by mammography and/or clinical examination are examined. Sensitivity of screening is estimated by comparing the incidence rate of interval cancers with that expected in the absence of screening, and the results are compared with those from alternative methods of calculating sensitivity. The incidence rate of cancers diagnosed within 12 months of a negative screen by mammography plus clinical examination was reduced by 70% for women aged 45-54, and 84% for women aged 55+. There is no indication from this that sensitivity in the UK trial was substantially lower than in other studies which have achieved larger reductions in mortality.

Breast Neoplasms↗

PubMed1993

Interlaboratory histopathologic assessment of Alzheimer neuropathology: different methodologies yield comparable diagnostic results.

Three investigators have applied different histopathologic methods (modified Bielschowsky silver methods, Congo red-gallocyanin) to differentiate Alzheimer's disease (AD) (n = 7 subjects; four with very mild dementia and three with moderate to advanced dementia) neuropathology from brain changes associated with aging in three nondemented individuals who had been evaluated using a validated dementia severity staging instrument [Washington University Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR)] generally within a year of death. The presence of elevated numbers of neocortical (frontal and temporal) diffuse, mature, and total senile plaques (SP) was strongly correlated with the presence of clinical AD but did not equate with CDR dementia severity. Neocortical neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) density as well as hippocampal NFT and SP density in this small series did not differentiate statistically between AD and controls. NFT density appeared to correlate with CDR better than SP density. Quantitative histopathologic assessment of AD markers in only a few brain regions can accurately predict the presence of clinical AD, including the very mild form of the disease. This is especially true for SP in the neocortex.

Aged↗

PubMed1993

The functional anatomy of limbic status epilepticus in the rat. I. Patterns of 14C-2-deoxyglucose uptake and Fos immunocytochemistry.

Limbic status epilepticus was induced in awake, unrestrained rats by electrically stimulating the olfactory cortex or the basal amygdaloid nucleus for about 40 min. One of four stable forms of status was induced, which were distinguished on the basis of their behavioral and EEG manifestations, and their distinct patterns of 14C-2-deoxyglucose uptake and Fos-like immunoreactivity. Type I status was characterized by sporadic EEG discharges and the activation of the amygdalohippocampal area, but had no overt behavioral manifestation. Type II status involved incessant exploratory behaviors, single EEG discharges, and the additional activation of the basal amygdaloid nucleus, some of its efferent projections, and parts of the olfactory cortex. Type III status included all of these same patterns, plus the episodic development of ictal EEG activity associated with facial and forelimb clonus, and the concurrent recruitment of the entire amygdala, ventral hippocampal formation, prefrontal, insular, and olfactory cortices, and related subcortical structures. Type IV status was characterized by generalized clonus, unremitting ictal EEG discharges, and the additional activation of most of the dorsolateral neocortex, neostriatum, and thalamus. In each case of status type I, II, or III, the same anatomical structures that displayed high levels of 14C-2-deoxyglucose uptake also contained many cells that were immunoreactive for Fos, with the exception of the parataenial and mediodorsal thalamic nuclei and the substantia nigra pars reticularis. Thus, the overall patterns of 14C-2-deoxyglucose uptake and Fos-like immunoreactivity from the same animals displayed a remarkable degree of correspondence. The major results indicate that different levels of status are related to the activation of discrete epileptogenic foci, and the capacity of such foci to interact with a distinct set of interconnected anatomical structures. It is suggested that the behavioral manifestations of limbic status epilepticus may be explained by influences of limbic structures in the ventral forebrain upon lower motor elements in the brainstem and spinal cord, without the participation of the "pyramidal" motor system.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1993

The functional anatomy of limbic status epilepticus in the rat. II. The effects of focal deactivation.

Limbic status epilepticus was induced in awake, unrestrained rats by electrically stimulating the anterior piriform cortex or the basal amygdaloid nucleus for about 40 min. As described in the preceding article (White and Price, 1993), one of four stable forms of status may be induced. Each form is characterized on the basis of its behavioral and electroencephalographic manifestations, and its distinct patterns of 14C-2-deoxyglucose uptake and Fos-like immunoreactivity. This study was directed at identifying the epileptogenic foci of the two major forms of status, types II and III, by deactivating the basal amygdaloid nucleus, ventral hippocampal formation, amygdalohippocampal area, or anterior piriform cortex during these seizure states. Infusions of the local anesthetic lidocaine, the GABA agonist muscimol, or a vehicle solution alone were made into each of these structures during ongoing type II or type III status. The major finding is that deactivation of the basal amygdaloid nucleus terminated both types of status. This indicates that the basal nucleus is primarily responsible for the generation of widespread status epilepticus activity. Deactivation of the ventral hippocampal formation did not terminate the subconvulsive levels of status, but did prevent the recurrent development of sustained seizures with facial and forelimb clonus that characterize type III status. These models of status epilepticus may be particularly important for understanding seizure mechanisms that are not dependent upon the hippocampal formation. The possible clinical relevance of these findings is discussed in relation to temporal lobe epilepsy.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1992

Neuronal and synaptic composition of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the rat: a light and electron microscopic Golgi study.

The distribution and dendritic domain of neurons in each segment of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus (MD) have been studied in the rat with the Golgi technique. In addition, a combined Golgi method-electron microscopic (Golgi-EM) study was undertaken to determine the distribution of morphologically distinct synapse types along the dendrites of individual identified neurons in MD. All the subdivisions or "segments" of MD (medial, central, lateral) contained both stellate and fusiform cells. The dendritic domain of both types of cells was predominantly restricted to the same segment of MD that contained the cell body of the neuron. Typical stellate neurons were found near the center of each segment, with radiating dendrites that extended to but not across the boundaries of the segment. Fusiform cells were usually located close to the segmental or nuclear boundaries and tended to have dendrites oriented parallel to those borders; again, the dendrites tended not to extend across borders between segments or at the outer edge of MD. In the medial segment of MD many fusiform cells had especially bipolar dendritic configurations, generally with a dorsoventral orientation. Because no small neurons were identified that might correspond to thalamic interneurons, all the impregnated cells in MD are presumed to be thalamocortical projection neurons. These results indicate that cells and their major dendrites are confined to a single segment of MD, with little dendritic overlap across segmental or nuclear borders. The segments of MD may therefore be considered to be relatively independent subnuclei. The distribution of the four types of synapses previously identified in MD (Kuroda and Price, J. Comp. Neurol., 303:513-533, 1991) was determined along several identified dendrites studied with the Golgi-EM method. Primary dendrites were contacted mostly by large axon terminals, including both large, round vesicle (LR) terminals and large, pleomorphic vesicle (LP) terminals, as well as a few small to medium sized terminals with pleomorphic vesicles (SMP). No small terminals with round vesicles (SR terminals) were observed to make synapses with primary dendrites. Secondary and tertiary dendrites received synapses from all types of axon terminals. Higher order dendrites were contracted predominantly by SR boutons, but they also carried some LR and SMP terminals. In addition, SMP boutons were often found to form symmetric contacts with cell somata.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Distribution of the piriform cortical terminals to cells in the central segment of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus of the rat.

A Golgi electron microscopic study was undertaken to investigate the distribution of terminals from the piriform cortex that synapse on identified dendrites of neurons in the central segment of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus of the rat. The piriform cortical terminals were identified as degenerating terminals following lesions in the cortex. They consisted of two types, i.e., large (LR type) and small (SR type) presynaptic terminals, both of which had round synaptic vesicles and formed asymmetric synaptic contacts. SR boutons terminated preferentially onto distal dendrites and never synapsed on primary dendrites. LR terminals synapsed preferentially on proximal dendrites, but were also found on more distal dendritic segments.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

The organization of the thalamocortical connections of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the rat, related to the ventral forebrain-prefrontal cortex topography.

The medial and central segments of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) receive afferents from the ventral forebrain, including the piriform cortex, the ventral pallidum, and the amygdaloid complex. Because MD is reciprocally interconnected with prefrontal and agranular insular cortical areas, it provides a relay of ventral forebrain activity to these cortical areas. However, there are also direct projections from the piriform cortex and the amygdala to the prefrontal and agranular insular cortices. This study addresses whether this system has a "triangular" organization, such that structures in the ventral forebrain project to interconnected areas in MD and the prefrontal/insular cortex. The thalamocortical projections of MD have been studied in experiments with injections of retrograde tracers into prefrontal or agranular insular cortical areas. In many of the same experiments, projections from the ventral forebrain to MD and to the prefrontal/insular cortex have been demonstrated with anterograde axonal tracers. The connections of the piriform cortex (PC) with MD and the prefrontal/insular cortex form an organized triangular system. The PC projections to the central and medial segments of MD and to the lateral orbital cortex (LO) and the ventral and posterior agranular insular cortices (AIv and AIp) are topographically organized, such that more caudal parts of PC tend to project more medially in MD and more caudally within the orbital/insular cortex. The central and medial portions of MD also send matching, topographically organized projections to LO, AIv and AIp, with more medial parts of MD projecting further caudally. The anterior cortical nucleus of the amygdala (COa) also projects to the dorsal part of the medial segment of MD and to its cortical targets, the medial orbital area (MO) and AIp. The projections of the basal/accessory basal amygdaloid nuclei to MD and to prefrontal cortex, and from MD to amygdaloceptive parts of prefrontal cortex, are not as tightly organized. Amygdalothalamic afferents in MD are concentrated in the dorsal half of the medial segment. Cells in this part of the nucleus project to the amygdaloceptive prelimbic area (PL) and AIp. However, other amygdaloceptive prefrontal areas are connected to parts of MD that do not receive fibers from the amygdala. Ventral pallidal afferents are distributed to all parts of the central and medial segments of MD, overlapping with the fibers from the amygdala and piriform cortex. Fibers from other parts of the pallidum, or related areas such as the substantia nigra, pars reticulata, terminate in the lateral and ventral parts of MD, where they overlap with inputs from the superior colliculus and other brainstem structures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Amygdala↗

PubMed1992

Sources of presumptive glutamatergic/aspartatergic afferents to the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus in the rat.

The distribution of presumptive glutamatergic and/or aspartatergic neurons retrogradely labeled following injections of 3HD-aspartate into the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (MD) in the rat was compared to the distribution of neurons labeled by comparable injections of the nonspecific retrograde tracer wheat germ agglutinin conjugated horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP). Cells retrogradely labeled by WGA-HRP were found in the prefrontal and agranular insular cortices; in forebrain structures such as the amygdaloid complex, the piriform cortex, the ventral pallidum and the reticular nucleus of the thalamus; and in several different parts of the brainstem, such as the superior colliculus, central grey, and substantia nigra, pars reticulata. Some, but not all, of these projections are presumably glutamatergic and/or aspartatergic. The projections to MD from the prefrontal and agranular insular cortices are well labeled with 3H-D-aspartate, as are projections from the anterior cortical amygdaloid nucleus. Projections from the superior colliculus to the lateral portion of MD also label with this tracer. However, other forebrain and brainstem projections to MD are not labeled with 3H-D-aspartate, and apparently do not use glutamate or aspartate as a neurotransmitter. These include the projections from the basal and accessory basal amygdaloid nuclei, as well as possibly GABAergic projections from the ventral pallidum and the substantia nigra, pars reticulata. A small fraction of the cells in the piriform cortex that project to MD label with 3H-D-aspartate, suggesting that this projection may be heterogeneous. In other experiments, presumptive GABAergic projections to MD were studied by using 3H-GABA as a retrograde tracer. Although in these cases the thalamic reticular nucleus is well labeled, the ventral pallidum and the substantia nigra, pars reticulata are only poorly labeled. Pallidal projections to the ventromedial thalamic nucleus (VM), which are likely to be GABAergic, were also studied with this technique. After injections of 3H-GABA into VM, only a few cells in the substantia nigra, pars reticulata, or entopeduncular nucleus were labeled. This result suggests 3H-GABA has limited usefulness as a transmitter-specific retrograde tracer.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Limb perfusion. An objective measure of hemodynamic improvement after angioplasty.

Forty-four patients undergoing femoropopliteal angioplasty were studied by magnetic resonance blood flowmetry to determine quantitative limb perfusion. Baseline limb perfusion averaged 0.52 +/- 0.15 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue. Perfusion values for successful angioplasties rose within 72 hours to a mean of 1.40 +/- 0.31 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue. There were five early failures (less than 30 days), in which perfusion fell to 0.54 +/- 0.10 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue; at 6 months, 12 additional angioplasties had failed, with limb perfusion values of 0.68 +/- 0.16 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue. At 6 months, perfusion in four additional limbs had decreased to between 0.7 and 1.0 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue, with a mean change of 0.59 mL/min per 100 cc of tissue; duplex ultrasound imaging at these sites showed restenoses ranging from 50% to 75%. We conclude that lower-leg limb perfusion appears to be a reliable measure of hemodynamic improvement after femoropopliteal angioplasty and may provide an early indicator of impending failure.

Aged↗

PubMed1992

Auditory imagery and free recall.

Research on mental imagery has demonstrated the importance of visual imagery to recall performance. Little attention, however, has been paid to the mnemonic value of auditory imagery. The present experiments addressed the influence of auditory and visual imagery on free recall. Characteristic sounds, pictures, or printed verbal labels of 40 common items were presented sequentially to adult subjects, who were asked to recall them after a 2-min retention interval. Pictures and characteristic sounds were associated with significantly better recall than were verbal labels alone, indicating that auditory imagery has mnemonic value similar to that of visual imagery. This effect was confirmed by further experiments. However, the effects of auditory and visual imagery on free recall were not shown to be additive.

Association Learning↗

PubMed1992

A functional anatomical study of unipolar depression.

The functional neuroanatomy of unipolar major depression was investigated using positron emission tomography to measure differences in regional cerebral blood flow (BF). A relatively homogeneous subject group was obtained using criteria for familial pure depressive disease (FPDD), which are based upon family history as well as upon symptoms and course. Because of the absence of certain knowledge about the pathophysiology of mood disorders and their underlying functional neuroanatomy, we used data obtained from the subtraction of composite images from one-half of depressed and control subjects to identify candidate regions of interest. The major cortical region defined in this manner was statistically tested on a second set of subjects. Using this strategy, we found increased BF in an area that extended from the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex onto the medial prefrontal cortical surface. Based upon the connectivity between these portions of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala and evidence that the amygdala is involved in emotional modulation, activity was measured in the left amygdala and found to be significantly increased in the depressed group. A separate group of subjects with FPDD who were currently asymptomatic were also imaged to determine whether these findings represented abnormalities associated with the depressed state, or with a trait difference that might underlie the tendency to become depressed. Only the depressed group had increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex, suggesting that this abnormality represents a state marker of FPDD. Both the depressed and the remitted groups demonstrated increased activity in the left amygdala, though this difference achieved significance only in the depressed group. This suggests that the abnormality involving the left amygdala may represent a trait marker of FPDD, though further assessment in a larger sample size is necessary to establish this. These data along with other evidence suggest that a circuit involving the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and related parts of the striatum, pallidum, and medial thalamus is involved in the functional neuroanatomy of depression.

Adult↗