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G C Agarwal

Publications and source records attributed to G C Agarwal.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2000

Computerised evaluation of cognitive and motor function.

In this paper, we present a clinical study of computerised tracking in the evaluation of cognitive and motor function. We investigate its use in the assessment of effectiveness of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) as well as in the process of following the progress of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To simplify the experiments, we introduce real-time adaptation of the target speed. In the study with epileptic patients, three result groups are compared: blood levels of AEDs, scores on standard neuropsychological tests, and scores on computerised tracking and reaction time tests. It is found that the computerised tests are repeatable, reliable and sensitive and may therefore be useful in the evaluation of epilepsy treatment. For example, while the blood levels associated with AEDs lie in the therapeutic range, variations in the optimal speed (OS) between 0.9 and 1.1 (expressed in relative units) are recorded. To significantly simplify the protocol for AD patients while preserving its main features, we introduce signal-processing techniques into the data analysis. Local signal property characteristics for AD are found which indicate that the preview tracking of an AD patient is similar to the non-preview tracking of a healthy control. This result is expected since the working memory, which is involved in movement planning, is impaired in AD. In non-preview tracking, healthy control subjects are mostly in tracking mode 1 and have a mean mode duration of 600 ms. In preview tracking, AD patients are mostly in mode 2 with a mean mode duration of 600 ms.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Decomposition of multiunit electromyographic signals.

We have developed a comprehensive technique to identify single motor unit (SMU) potentials and to decompose overlapped electromyographic (EMG) signals into their constituent SMU potentials. This technique is based on one-channel EMG recordings and is easily implemented for many clinical EMG tests. There are several distinct features of our technique: 1) it measures waveform similarity of SMU potentials in the wavelet domain, which gives this technique significant advantages over other techniques; 2) it classifies spikes based on the nearest neighboring algorithm, which is less sensitive to waveform variation; 3) it can effectively separate compound potentials based on a maximum signal energy deduction algorithm, which is fast and relatively reliable; and 4) it also utilizes the information on discharge regularities of SMU's to help correct possible decomposition errors. The performance of this technique has been evaluated by using simulated EMG signals composed of up to eight different discharging SMU's corrupted with white noise, and also by using real EMG signals recorded at levels up to 50% maximum voluntary contraction. We believe that it is a very useful technique to study SMU discharge patterns and recruitment of motor units in patients with neuromuscular disorders in clinical EMG laboratories.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1994

Biomechanical and reflex responses to joint perturbations during electrical stimulation of muscle: instrumentation and measurement techniques.

A test device is developed to measure ankle joint compliance and muscle activity when the ankle is subjected to perturbations in angular position (or torque) from bias positions achieved volitionally or via electrical stimulation. The ankle measurement system uses a pivoting footplate and is operable with the subject sitting or supine. A companion platform for the knee is developed that uses a rotary arm and attached leg brace and is operable with the subject's leg in the horizontal or vertical plane. The knee fixture's pivoting arm can slide to account for the cam-like movement of the knee during rotation. The devices use similar hardware and share common instrumentation and control. Precise torque or position perturbations are delivered by a computer-controlled torque motor to the ankle or knee. Angular displacement, torque, acceleration, knee fixture moment arm and electromyographic data are collected on analogue tape and simultaneously digitised and stored. A special stimulator/recording amplifier permits the recording of electromyographic signals from the stimulated muscle. Experimental data indicate that the ankle and knee devices, operated horizontally, are purely inertial systems. Sample ankle and knee joint responses to perturbations are presented.

Ankle Joint↗
PubMed1993

Principles for learning single-joint movements. I. Enhanced performance by practice.

This study investigated changes in myoelectric and mechanical variables for movements made "as fast as possible" as a function of practice in the context of the dual-strategy hypothesis of motor control (Gottlieb et al. 1989b). Five male subjects made 1400 rapid elbow flexion movements in ten blocks of 20 trials over seven experimental sessions. Improved performance was defined as increased peak movement velocity, decreased peak velocity variability, increased acceleration and deceleration, a proportionately greater increase in peak deceleration than peak acceleration, and greater consistency in terminal location. The changes observed over experimental sessions were very similar to (but larger and more consistent than) those seen for the first experimental session, with the partial exception of the timing of the antagonist electromyogram (EMG). In general, the increases in the values of the measured mechanical variables covary with myoelectric measures in the same way as when subjects are asked to intentionally change speed in accordance with the rules of the speed-sensitive strategy (Corcos et al. 1989). However, there are differences between subjects in the extent to which speed changes can be attributable to the agonist muscle, the antagonist muscle, or in the timing between the muscles. In one of the five subjects, the latency of the antagonist EMG decreased over blocks on the 1st day but increased over experimental sessions and was consequently activated proportionately later in the movement. This suggests that extended practice can give at least some subjects flexibility in modifying the motor programs that underlie movement.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Principles for learning single-joint movements. II. Generalizing a learned behavior.

The previous paper in this series showed that changes both within and between experimental sessions can be understood in the framework of the dual-strategy hypothesis of motor control, with a modification sometimes required for the timing of the antagonist muscle. The present paper extends these findings by determining how practicing movements at one distance generalizes to changes in performance at other distances. Five subjects made elbow flexion movements over five different distances (pretest). They then performed 1400 movements (seven sessions of ten blocks of 20 trials) at only one of those distances. The subjects then repeated the flexion movements over the five different distances (posttest). On the posttest, subjects decreased their average movement time by 20 ms. In addition, their movements became less variable. The electromyographic pattern of the faster movements was characterized by a more rapidly rising electromyogram, for three of the subjects, and an antagonist latency that decreased.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Organizing principles for single joint movements: V. Agonist-antagonist interactions.

1. Normal human subjects made discrete elbow flexions in the horizontal plane under different task conditions of initial or final position, inertial loading, or instruction about speed. We measured joint angle, acceleration, and electromyographic signals (EMGs) from two agonist and two antagonist muscles. 2. For many of the experimental tasks, the latency of the antagonist EMG burst was strongly correlated with parameters of the first agonist EMG burst defined by a single equation, expressed in terms of the agonist's hypothetical excitation pulse. Latency is proportional to the ratio of pulse duration to pulse intensity, making it proportional to movement distance and inertial load and inversely proportional to planned movement speed. However, these rules are not sufficient to define the timing of every possible single joint movement. 3. For movements described by the speed-insensitive strategy, the quantity of both antagonist and agonist muscle activity can be uniformly associated with selected kinetic measures that incorporate muscle force-velocity relations. 4. For movements collectively described by the speed-sensitive strategy, (i.e., that have direct or indirect constraints on speed), no single rule can describe all the combinations of agonist-antagonist coordination that are used to perform these diverse tasks. 5. Estimates of joint viscosity were made by calculating the amount of velocity-dependent torque used to terminate movements on target. These estimates are similar to those that have previously been made of limb viscosity during postural maintenance. They imply that a significant component of muscle activity must be used to overcome these forces. 6. These and previous results are all consistent with a dual-strategy hypothesis for those single-joint movements that are sufficiently fast to require pulse-like muscle activation patterns. The major features of such patterns (pulse intensities, durations, and latencies) are determined by central commands programmed in advance of movement initiation. The selection between speed-insensitive or speed-sensitive rules of motoneuron pool excitation is implicitly specified by the nature of speed constraints of the movement task.

Electromyography↗
PubMed1990

Organizing principles for single joint movements. III. Speed-insensitive strategy as a default.

1. Human subjects made discrete elbow flexions in a horizontal plane over different distances, from a stationary initial position to a visually defined stationary target 9 degrees wide. We measured joint angle, acceleration, and electromyograms (EMGs) from two agonist and two antagonist muscles. 2. Subjects made movements over four different distances following one of four different instructions. The first instructed the subject simply to choose a comfortable speed. The other three explicitly emphasized either speed, accuracy, or maintenance of the "same" speed over different distances. These instructions produced a wide range of movement velocities. 3. The initial rises of the acceleration (and therefore of the inertial torque), as well as the initial slope of the agonist EMG, were all invariant over changes in the target distance for any single instruction but were all sensitive to the given instruction. 4. Our results demonstrate that the speed-insensitive strategy is a standard or default pattern for performing movements that may be carried out for different instructions over a wide range of speeds. A uniform intensity of excitation pulse is not a byproduct of moving at maximal speed. Submaximal intensities are associated with submaximal speeds and are a selected feature of the pattern of movement control.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1990

Organizing principles for single-joint movements. IV. Implications for isometric contractions.

1. Normal human subjects made isometric pulse and step contractions about the elbow to visually defined target torques of different amplitudes and at different rates. We measured joint torque and electromyograms (EMG) from two agonist and two antagonist muscles. 2. When the task specification requires that the subject explicitly alter the rate at which torque is increased, the rates of rise of the agonist and antagonist EMG bursts covary with the rate of rise of the torque. For pulses of torque the duration of motoneuron excitation varies with the duration of the task-defined contractile event. 3. When a subject is asked to generate torques of different amplitudes without specifying a time interval, torque amplitude is positively correlated with how long, and therefore how high, the EMG rose. Subjects usually proportionately covary the strength of the agonist and antagonist contractions but are not constrained to do so. Some subjects use a strategy of varying the antagonist inversely with the agonist contraction. 4. We extend the organizing principles for the control of movement about a single joint to the control of isometric torque. These rules state that control of torque about a single joint is exercised by one of two strategies: the speed-sensitive strategy modulates the rate at which contraction rises by varying the intensity of motoneuron-pool excitation. The speed-insensitive strategy varies the duration over which contraction rises but does not change the rate. These two respective patterns of torque emerge from pulse-height and pulse-width modulation of motoneuron-pool excitation. 5. The rules defining speed-sensitive and speed-insensitive strategies for movements are broadened for isometric contractions because of the wider range of torque patterns that we observe under these conditions. We propose a step-excitation component for prolonged isometric step contractions and slowly rising ramp patterns of excitation for contractions that develop over several hundreds of milliseconds. 6. The choice of strategies is based on task-specific torque requirements. The same two strategies that control torque to produce movement apply to the control of isometric torque. Unlike movements, however, isometric tasks are more often controlled by a blending of the two patterns. Possible reasons for this are discussed.

Electromyography↗
PubMed1990

Reflex responses to ankle perturbations during electrical stimulation of muscle: 1. Measurement techniques and preliminary examples.

Electrical stimulation of muscle has been proposed as a technique to restore function to paralyzed muscles. But, from a control stand-point, little is known about how such artificial activation interacts with the still intact spinal reflex loops. We have developed instrumentation to measure and compare ankle compliance and muscle EMG activity when the ankle is subjected to perturbations in torque or angular position from bias positions that are achieved volitionally or via electrical muscle stimulation. We deliver precise torque or position perturbations (step, ramp, sinusoidal, random) to the ankle via a pivoting footplate driven by a computer-controlled torque motor. Angular displacement, torque, acceleration, and 2 to 4 channels of electromyographic (EMG) data are collected on analog (VHS) tape and simultaneously digitized and stored. Torque or position biases to normal ankle equilibrium position are applied volitionally (for the neurologically intact) or via electrical stimulation of the Gastroc/Soleus or the Tibialis Anterior muscle (for either the neurologically intact or spinal cord injured). A special stimulator/recording amplifier permits the recording of EMG signals from the muscle being stimulated. An overview of the features and response characteristics of the perturbation system and a comparison from preliminary studies of responses at different biases achieved volitionally versus those achieved by stimulation are presented.

Ankle Joint↗
PubMed1989

Organizing principles for single-joint movements. I. A speed-insensitive strategy.

1. Normal human subjects made discrete elbow flexions and extensions in the horizontal plane from a stationary initial position to visually defined targets at different distances with a constant inertial load or made flexions to a visually defined target with different inertial loads. We measured joint angle, acceleration, and electromyograms (EMGs) from two agonist and two antagonist muscles. 2. Subjects were instructed to move their limbs accurately but quickly to the targets. Movements of greater distances or lesser loads were performed at higher velocities. 3. Peak inertial torque, acceleration and velocity, movement time, and integrated, rectified EMG were all highly correlated with the task variables, distance and inertial load. We show that peak inertial torque can be used as a linking variable that is almost sufficient to explain all correlations between the tasks, the EMG, and movement kinematics. 4. The rate at which subjects initially developed torque to accelerate their movements was invariant over changes in the value of either task variable. The rising phase of the agonist EMG was also independent of the distance or load moved. 5. Two components were distinguished in the antagonist EMG. The first had a relatively constant latency and amplitude. It terminated on the onset of the second and larger component at a latency that was delayed as both distance and load increased. 6. The integrated, rectified antagonist EMG was proportional to inertial load and peak decelerating torque for changes in inertial load. When target distance varied, proportionality between peak decelerating torque and antagonist EMG could be found if correction was made for the effects of muscle length on the torque-EMG relationship. 7. We propose organizing principles for the control of single-joint human movements in which tasks are performed by one of two strategies. These are called speed-insensitive and speed-sensitive strategies. 8. A model is described in which movements made under a speed-insensitive strategy are executed by controlling the duration and the relative timing of amplitude invariant patterns of activation to the spinal motoneuron pools.

Elbow Joint↗
PubMed1989

Organizing principles for single-joint movements. II. A speed-sensitive strategy.

1. Normal human subjects made discrete flexions of the elbow over a fixed distance in the horizontal plane from a stationary initial position to a visually defined target. We measured joint angle, acceleration, and electromyograms (EMGs) from two agonist and two antagonist muscles. 2. Changes in movement speed were elicited either by explicit instruction to the subject or by adjusting the target width. Instructions always required accurately stopping in the target zone. 3. Peak inertial torques and accelerations, movement times, and integrated EMGs were all highly correlated with speed. We show that inertial torque can be used as a linking variable that is almost sufficient to explain all correlations between the task, the EMG, and movement kinematics. 4. When subjects perform tasks that require control of movement speed, they adjust the rate at which torque is developed by the muscles. This rate is modulated by the way in which the muscles are activated. The rate at which joint torque develops is correlated with the rate at which the agonist EMG rises as well as with integrated EMG. 5. The antagonist EMG shows two components. The latency of the first is 30-50 ms and independent of movement dynamics. The latency of the second component is proportional to movement time. The rate of rise and area of both components scale with torque. 6. We propose organizing principles for the control of single-joint movements in which tasks are performed by one of two strategies. These are called speed-insensitive and speed-sensitive strategies. 7. A model is proposed in which movements made under a speed-sensitive strategy are executed by controlling the intensity of an excitation pulse delivered to the motoneuron pool. The effect is to regulate the rate at which joint torque, and consequently acceleration, increases. 8. Movements of variable distance, speed, accuracy, and load are shown to be controlled by one of two consistent sets of rules for muscle activation. These rules apply to the control of both the agonist and antagonist muscles. Rules of activation lead to distinguishable patterns of EMG and torque development. All observable changes in movement kinematics are explained as deterministic consequences of these effects.

Elbow Joint↗
PubMed1988

Practice improves even the simplest movements.

Three subjects practiced accurate, fast elbow flexions of 54 degrees to a 3 degrees wide target. Movements of 36 degrees, 54 degrees and 72 degrees were then tested. Comparison over the three distances showed that the normally monotonic relationship between movement distance and movement time is alterable by specific training. Subjects learn to go faster over the practiced distance by refining their neural commands to the muscles. The benefits of practice only partially transfer to other distances. We conclude that many of the relationships seen among movement variables in simple tasks are plastic in nature and affected by prior experience.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Accuracy constraints upon rapid elbow movements.

Kinematic and myoelectric variables associated with rapid elbow-flexion movements of various distances to targets of various widths were studied. The movement time in these experiments conformed to Fitts' law: movement time increased with target distance and decreased with target width. Peak movement velocity, electromyograph (EMG) duration, and EMG quantity were poorly described by Fitts' law, for increases in target width were accompanied by increases in these variables. We show with regression equations, using separate weighting coefficients, that kinematic and myoelectric variables can be related to distance and target width. The use of distance and target width as independent variables allows us to suggest that the literature does not agree on the relation between EMG and distance moved partly because of the influences of the target on this relationship. We propose that human voluntary movement involves a subject "strategy," or set of internal constraints, that affect movement outcome. Significant elements of this strategy, such as how accurately to perform the task, may not be recognized or controlled in many movement paradigms, in spite of uniform instruction to subjects and similar apparatus.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1988

Compliance of single joints: elastic and plastic characteristics.

1. Step changes in torque were applied to the elbow or ankle joint of normal human subjects who exerted constant levels of effort. They were instructed to not react to the torque but to allow their limbs to move to a new equilibrium position. In this experimental paradigm, the joint may be characterized by a nonlinear compliant element. The aim of this study was to characterize the elastic properties of the compliant element. 2. Joint elasticity is described by an S-shaped relation between torque and angle (a "compliant characteristic curve"). The stiffness of a joint is greatest for small perturbations and decreases as the size of the perturbation is increased whether the limb is loaded or unloaded from its initial equilibrium. 3. The S shape of the compliant characteristic curve is relatively constant when measured at different initial joint angles from the same initial joint torque. 4. Higher levels of initial muscle torque increase the steepness of the compliant characteristic curve. 5. All changes in initial joint torque and angle preserve the S shape. The inflection point of the characteristic curve is always at the initial equilibrium angle and torque. This shifting of the inflection point of the torque-angle relation implies a fundamental plasticity in joint compliance. The elastic component is not invariant but changes with the joint's initial equilibrium state. 6. Changes in muscle tension and length that result from a perturbation are accompanied by changes in muscle activation. The relationship between perturbation torque and mean equilibrium EMG is similar to that found for voluntary isometric contraction. It is not possible to conclude what proportion of the late EMG response to perturbation is mediated by segmental reflex mechanisms. 7. At the levels of torque used here, changes in joint stiffness are highly correlated with changes in tonic contraction of the muscle opposing the load. This change in stiffness is not the result of antagonist coactivation, which was minimal. 8. The compliant characteristic curves of elbow and ankle are qualitatively similar. The principal difference is due to the greater passive stiffness of the ankle. 9. Our findings are inconsistent with aspects of the theory of invariant characteristics or with models of movement and load compensation that postulate a control scheme based only on the setting of muscle and reflex equilibrium points. The data are also incompatible with models that only control the elastic stiffness of the muscle.

Ankle Joint↗
PubMed1986

Movement deficits caused by hyperexcitable stretch reflexes in spastic humans.

Spastic patients were instructed to make accurate, rapid ankle dorsiflexion and plantarflexion movements over different distances to a target. Ankle position and surface electromyograms (EMGs) from tibialis anterior (TA) and soleus (SOL) muscles were recorded. In 3 of 8 spastic patients tested, dorsiflexion evoked velocity-dependent activation of the antagonist (SOL) muscle which impeded the movement to the extent that the limb unintentionally reversed movement direction. We propose that this activation is reflex in origin since it is tightly synchronized, has a large peak amplitude, occurs about 50 ms after the initiation of the movement, and is velocity dependent. One of the 3 patients who had reflex-induced antagonist activation in dorsiflexion also demonstrated sustained clonus during plantarflexion. This usually occurred only if the target had been overshot so that the return of the limb stretched the soleus muscle and triggered clonus. We conclude that in some patients, hyperactive stretch reflexes cause movement deficits.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Stretch reflexes of the normal infant.

Tendon-jerk reflexes were tested in normal, fullterm infants aged one to four days. EMGs were recorded from gastrocnemius-soleus and tibialis anterior muscles. Reflex-like EMGs were evoked when tapping sites which should not excite the muscles from which that activity is recorded--this included the simultaneous activation of antagonistic muscles by a tendon tap. The possible mechanisms which could produce these results are discussed, as are the possible relationships between the proposed pathways and the reciprocally excitatory paths in cerebral palsy.

Electromyography↗
PubMed1985

A note on accepting the null hypothesis: problems with respect to the mass-spring and pulse-step models of movement control.

Models are sometimes developed on the premise that there are no differences between two or more conditions regardless of experimental manipulation. This article argues that unless a very sensitive experiment (or series of experiments) was conducted, such conclusions are often premature. Design and statistical factors such as alpha level, variability, sample size, and treatment effect are all determinants of the sensitivity of the experiment. It is sometimes the case that an experiment produces differences between means and yet the null hypothesis is not rejected because of high variability within experimental conditions or because too few subjects were used. Unless the probability of detecting a difference between groups is known, it would seem unwise to conclude that no difference exists. Judgment on the model should be suspended. Examples are taken from the mass-spring and pulse-step models fro voluntary movement control to illustrate the problem.

Journal Article↗