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Biomedical subjects

G A Zarkin

Publications and source records attributed to G A Zarkin.

36 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
PubMed1996

Estimating the cost effectiveness of atovaquone versus intravenous pentamidine in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia.

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) is the most common severe opportunistic infection, and one of the most costly, among people with AIDS. Over 50% of patients experience toxic effects of the major anti-PCP medications- cotrimoxazole (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) and pentamidine. Recently, the US Food and Drug Administration approved a new oral drug therapy, atovaquone, as an alternative to pentamidine for the treatment of people with mild-to-moderate PCP who are intolerant of cotrimoxazole. We developed a decision tree model to estimate the costs and cost effectiveness of atovaquone therapy compared with intravenous pentamidine therapy for cotrimoxazole-intolerant patients with mild-to-moderate PCP. Clinical outcomes were based on data from a phase III trial comparing the 2 medications. Our economic outcomes were based on treatment algorithms derived from discharge data, published reports and the clinical judgement of the co-authors. We estimate the total expected cost of treating a patient for an episode of PCP with atovaquone to be $US3990 compared with $US6545 for pentamidine under our baseline scenario (1995 dollars). Our decision model also provides insight into the large cost-savings benefits of treating mild-to-moderate PCP on an outpatient basis.

Antifungal Agents↗
PubMed1996

Health care reforms and managed care for substance abuse services: findings from eleven case studies.

In 1992, the United States spent $820 billion on health care. For the same year, an estimated 15 percent of the U.S. population, approximately 43 million people, were uninsured. As health care costs continue to rise, the number of people able to afford coverage continues to decline. Given these statistics, it is not surprising that concern over health care reform is at the forefront of government policy. Over the past few years, policymakers have faced the challenge of creating a more cost-efficient, universal health care system. Many of the proposed reforms rely heavily on managed care practices and treatment limits to help control costs. The impact of managed care is already apparent in primary health care where private insurers have been using it for years (e.g., HMOs, PPOs). However, its full impact on substance abuse treatment services remains unknown. In this paper, we present the perceptions, opinions, and experiences of eleven drug treatment programs regarding the actual or anticipated effects of managed care and health care reforms on the delivery, financing, and costs of substance abuse treatment. We also present an analysis of these programs' current costs and financing. We believe that the information presented in this paper provides timely insights into the substance abuse treatment system; these insights should assist policymakers in developing optimal health care reform policies.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed1996

The effect of maternal substance abuse on the cost of neonatal care.

This study addresses the effect of maternal substance abuse on the cost of neonatal care in a sample of all singleton live births in Maryland in 1991. Most other cost studies have analyzed data from only one hospital; we analyzed data from 54 hospitals and therefore can control for individual hospital effects and correlation of observations within hospitals. We find that maternal drug abuse has a significant positive effect on total hospital charges, length of stay, and average daily charges, with the increase in length of stay being proportionally greater than the increase in average daily charges. Maternal alcohol abuse also has a positive effect on hospital charges and length of stay, but the effects are not statistically significant. About half the effect of drug abuse on total charges works indirectly through premature birth and other comorbidities.

Comorbidity↗
PubMed1996

Inpatient stays for patients diagnosed with severe psychiatric disorders and substance abuse.

OBJECTIVE: To empirically determine if a substance abuse comorbidity is related to longer inpatient stays for patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and affective psychoses. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional analysis of patients in three states: Maryland, California, and Arizona. Using multivariate techniques, we control for the effects of patient severity, insurance, and hospital characteristics on length of stay. DATA COLLECTION: We used a patient-level and state-specific hospital discharge database merged with hospital characteristics from the American Hospital Association. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The conventional wisdom is that patients with a substance abuse comorbidity have longer inpatient stays than similar patients without a substance abuse comorbidity. We did not observe this trend. We found wide variation in length of stay by state and patients' health insurance. In some cases, length of stay was statistically shorter for patients with a substance abuse comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: Our research demonstrates that a substance abuse comorbidity does not necessarily equate to longer inpatient stays and that previous studies may overstate the impact of substance abuse on inpatient care utilization. In addition, we find that a relationship between substance abuse and length of stay may not be generalizable across states, diagnoses, hospitals, and/or insurance types. Future studies of the impact of substance abuse on inpatient stays need to control for these important covariates.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1995

Is moderate alcohol use related to wages? Evidence from four worksites.

Moderate alcohol users (approximately two drinks per day on average) have recently been shown to have a lower risk of coronary heart disease relative to abstainers and heavy drinkers. Conversely, a few studies have found that alcoholism is associated with greater unemployment and lower earnings. But, little research has examined the differential effects of drinking levels on job compensation. We utilize a newly created database on employees at four worksites to test for a nonlinear relationship between alcohol use and wages. We also examine whether alcohol use affects wages indirectly through educational achievement, marital status, and poor health. Our findings suggest an inverse U-shaped relationship between alcohol consumption and wages with a peak at approximately 1.5 to 2.5 drinks per day on average. Thus, controlling for other variables and conditional on working, moderate alcohol users have higher wages than abstainers and heavy drinkers at these worksites. We also find evidence that alcohol use is related to wages through human capital variables.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Employment-based health insurance: implications of the sampling unit for policy analysis.

One of the least understood aspects of using employer data for the health reform debate concerns important differences between enterprise- and establishment-level surveys of employers. We demonstrate that the choice of sampling unit affects the size distribution of employees between large and small firms, as well as the estimated proportion of firms offering health insurance. Because health insurance decisions in multi-establishment enterprises generally are made for the entire enterprise rather than individual establishments, we conclude that enterprise surveys are most appropriate for collecting information on the factors affecting the decision to provide health insurance coverage. Nevertheless, an establishment-level survey may be preferred for evaluating decisions made at the state, regional, or industry level. But establishment-level surveys will underestimate the impact of an employer mandate on the unit that ultimately makes the decision to offer health insurance--the enterprise. Given the enormous human and financial stakes involved in health care reform, we urge policymakers and analysts to reflect on the strengths and limitations of alternative sampling units, and to consider the implications for interpreting survey data and formulating policy decisions.

Fee-for-Service Plans↗
PubMed1994

The relationship between employer health insurance characteristics and the provision of employee assistance programs.

Workplace drug and alcohol abuse imposes substantial costs on employers. In response, employers have implemented a variety of programs to decrease substance abuse in the workplace, including drug testing, health and wellness programs, and employee assistance programs (EAPs). This paper focuses on the relationship between enterprises' organizational and health insurance characteristics and the firms' decisions to provide EAPs. Using data from the 1989 Survey of Health Insurance Plans (SHIP), sponsored by the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), we estimated the prevalence of EAPs by selected organizational and health insurance characteristics for those firms that offer health insurance to their workers. In addition, we estimated logistic models of the enterprises' decisions to provide EAPs as functions of the extent of state substance abuse and mental health insurance mandates, state-level demographic variables, and organizational and health insurance characteristics. Our results suggest that state mandates and demographic variables, as well as organizational and health insurance characteristics, are important explanatory variables of enterprises' decisions to provide EAPs.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, U.S.↗
PubMed1993

Potential health benefits of nutrition label changes.

OBJECTIVES: The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 mandates the Food and Drug Administration to promulgate changes in nutrition labeling regulations. This study investigates the potential health benefits associated with expected changes in food consumption resulting from the act. METHODS: This paper provides four estimates of the potential health benefits from the dietary changes expected to occur as a result of the 1990 act. The upper bound estimates begin with the premise that all consumers will adopt the daily reference values of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. The lower bound estimate is based on consumers' responses to a shelf-labeling program sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration in the 1980s. A computer model developed by Dr. Warren Browner and his associates was used to estimate the health benefits from reduced nutrient intakes. RESULTS: Estimates of the number of discounted life-years gained nationwide for the first 20 years after the implementation of the act range from a high of 1.2 million to a low of 40,000. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study highlight that relatively small changes in nutrient intakes may generate large public health benefits.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

The effects of time in drug abuse treatment and employment on posttreatment drug use and criminal activity.

The impact of length of stay in drug abuse treatment on follow-up drug use and criminal behavior has important clinical and policy implications. In this paper we use longitudinal data from the Treatment Outcome Prospective Study to estimate the simultaneous effects of time in treatment and employment outcomes--weeks worked and total earnings--on posttreatment drug use and criminal activity. The drug use/criminal activity variables include four indexes measuring the severity of use, drug-related problems, predatory illegal acts, and overall criminal behavior. The results show that time in treatment had a negative and statistically significant impact on these outcome variables for every modality with residential clients experiencing the largest relative impact. The time-in-treatment effect was robust even when employment outcomes were modeled jointly with drug use and criminal activity outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of length of stay in treatment in the recovery and rehabilitation of drug abusers.

Ambulatory Care↗
PubMed1991

The impact of time in treatment on the employment and earnings of drug abusers.

We use data from a longitudinal survey to estimate the effects of time in drug abuse treatment on post-treatment weeks worked and earnings for 2,420 clients in three treatment modalities. The regression analysis shows that time in treatment had a positive and statistically significant impact on these labor market outcomes, but the effects were small for all modalities. Although residential clients experienced the largest relative changes in weeks worked and real earnings, a benefit-cost calculation suggests that additional residential treatment cannot be justified from earnings improvements alone. These results may indicate a need for more employment services while in treatment.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Financing strategies for drug abuse treatment programs.

Contemporary drug abuse treatment programs exist in an extremely complex financing environment. Programs face a myriad of funding sources with different eligibility requirements and payment mechanisms that make it difficult for programs to develop a single financing strategy. To complicate the financing process, current funding sources are in a state of flux as managed care gains significance in health care reimbursement. This article will assist drug abuse treatment programs in several ways. First, it summarizes information about funding, eligibility requirements and payment mechanisms. Second, the information is geared toward drug treatment programs and less toward policymakers. Third, the article describes strategies for obtaining funding, including strategies for interacting with managed care. By using these methods for obtaining revenues, it is hoped that drug treatment programs will be able to increase their financing effectiveness.

Cost Control↗
PubMedDate not supplied

An inpatient profile of patients with a substance abuse diagnosis in Maryland.

We provide a descriptive analysis of patients with a substance abuse diagnosis in Maryland hospitals in 1991. The intent of the study was not to model relationships between substance abuse and other outcomes (e.g., length of stay), but was to obtain a better understanding of the population receiving inpatient care and to motivate future research. We found that the majority of patients with a substance abuse diagnosis were male, African-American, single, and between the ages of 15 and 44. Medicaid was overwhelmingly the primary payer for their care. These patients were diagnosed with chronic liver disease, pancreas diseases, HIV infection, a number of psychiatric disorders, and respiratory symptoms. We surprisingly found that the average length of stay was shorter for patients with a substance abuse diagnosis and that their average charges were only slightly higher than other patients. We also found that substance abuse patients enter the hospital through the emergency room and the majority leave the hospital against medical advice.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A structured instrument for estimating the economic cost of drug abuse treatment. The Drug Abuse Treatment Cost Analysis Program (DATCAP).

Drug abuse treatment programs need to know the cost of the services they provide. Indeed, continued public and private funding is now being linked to cost and performance measures, and programs can use financial data to improve organizational efficiency. However, one of the dangers of promoting cost studies at treatment programs is that most program staff are not technically prepared to perform a cost analysis and little user-friendly information is available to offer assistance. Furthermore, not all cost methods are consistent, which can lead to noncomparable estimates that are difficult to use for policy or planning purposes. Our paper tries to fill this gap in the research literature and provide treatment programs with a much-needed technical assistance tool. Specifically, we present a structured and scientifically-based instrument for estimating the economic cost of treatment services. The Drug Abuse Treatment Cost Analysis Program (DATCAP) is described in detail along with a companion instrument to analyze treatment financing; the Drug Abuse Treatment Financing Analysis Program (DATFin). The components of both instruments are outlined and findings from a variety of actual case studies are presented. Lastly, we discuss the DATCAP User's Manual, which will enable individual programs to begin collecting the necessary data and estimating economic costs at their own clinics.

Costs and Cost Analysis↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Implications of managed care for methadone treatment. Findings from five case studies in New York State.

Several policy changes are being debated in New York State that may affect the financing and delivery of methadone maintenance treatment. The goals of this article are to provide greater understanding of the potential impact of managed care on methadone treatment in New York State, and greater understanding of the consequences of arbitrary limits on methadone treatment. Toward these goals, in October 1996, we conducted 1-day site visits at five methadone treatment programs in New York State to learn their views and concerns, and to examine their strategic responses to potential changes in treatment financing and delivery. The treatment programs we visited expressed concern about subjecting methadone patients to any of the potential policy changes because they felt that, if implemented without regard for the special needs of methadone patients, these reforms could hurt treatment access, retention, and quality of care. All the programs stated that limits on treatment would increase drug use and, consequently, increase crime and risk of infectious disease, and cause overall deterioration of the community.

Humans↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Prevalence and consequences of smoking, alcohol use, and illicit drug use at five worksites.

Employers are becoming increasingly concerned about the consequences and costs of substance use in their workplaces. Despite this heightened awareness, little information is available to guide them in setting up worksite-based prevention and assistance programs. Most estimates of the prevalence or consequences of substance use are derived from large national surveys of households or individual persons. The primary contribution of this research to the public health literature is the empirical results from a unique data set. In particular, this study presents results of a survey administered to more than 1,200 employees at five different worksites. Descriptive statistics for the prevalence of smoking, alcohol and illicit drug use, prescription drug misuse, and workplace consequences, such as reduced performance and absenteeism, are reported, as well as findings from a multivariate analysis of substance use prevalence and consequences. Compared with national averages, workers at these five sites tended to have substance use profiles similar to or slightly lower than estimates from large national surveys. The study's estimates may help employers identify the extent of a substance abuse problem in their worksites and specific areas to target for possible intervention.

Absenteeism↗