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Biomedical subjects

B Weber

Publications and source records attributed to B Weber.

At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources
PubMed2000

Increased activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system after treatment with the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone.

The hippocampal mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is critical for the regulation of the basal activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system. It has been hypothesized that reduced capacity of the hippocampal MR is involved in the HPA-system dysregulation found in depression and aging. We applied the combined dexamethasone suppression/corticotropin releasing hormone stimulation (DEX/CRH) test to six healthy young females both before and after 12 days of treatment with the MR antagonist spironolactone to assess HPA regulation. Treatment with spironolactone caused a significant increase in post-dexamethasone cortisol concentrations (75.1+/-56.7 vs. 36.6+/-24.6 nmol/l, p<0.05). Furthermore, we observed a significant rise in peak cortisol concentration after additional human CRH (hCRH) application (223. 6+/-139.1 vs. 126.7+/-73.3 nmol/l, p<0.02). There was no change in ACTH plasma concentrations. We thus conclude that (1) the MR antagonist spironolactone affects HPA system regulation as reflected in the DEX/CRH test and (2) these findings are in accordance with the assumption that MR dysfunction may underlie HPA-system dysfunction in depression and/or aging.

Adrenal Glands↗
PubMed2000

Testosterone, androstenedione and dihydrotestosterone concentrations are elevated in female patients with major depression.

Hyperactivity of the HPA-system in major depression is reflected by an increased secretion of adrenal hormones especially cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). In women for whom androgenicity is associated with cardiovascular disorders the dominant source of androstenedione and testosterone secretion are the adrenal glands. To date, there is only sparse information about the regulation of androstenedione, testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) concentrations in women with severe major depression.Therefore, 11 pre- and postmenopausal, severely depressed, hypercortisolemic women (Hamilton Depression Scale, 31.3+/-5.9; age, 28-77 yrs; mean, 48. 1+/-18.1 yrs) and 11 age-matched healthy female controls (age, 24-81 yrs; mean, 47.9+/-21.5 yrs) underwent a 24 hour (h) blood sampling starting at 0800 h with 30-minute sampling intervals. By applying multivariate analysis of covariance with age as covariate, androstenedione, testosterone and DHT plasma levels at 0900 h show a trend for elevated concentrations in depressed women compared to controls (F(1,19)=2.7; P=0.057). Univariate F tests reveal a significant difference between the groups for androstenedione (4. 19+/-1.571 vs 2.584+/-1.257 nmol/l; P<0.05) testosterone (1.110+/-0. 278 vs 0.833+/-0.347 nmol/l; P<0.05) and DHT (0.656+/-0.207 vs 0. 483+/-0.242 nmol/l; P<0.05). Mean ACTH (16.4+/-10.4 vs 10.4+/-2.4 pmol/l; P=0.89), LH (13.5+/-11.8 vs 8.9+/-9.2 IU/l; P=0.12), FSH (35. 2+/-33.1 vs 31.3+/-35.7 IU/l; P=0.67) and estradiol (135.4+/-157.4 vs 82.2+/-85.1 pmol/l; P=0.20) plasma levels did not differ between patients and controls. Further, there was a trend towards an age related decline in testosterone secretion in healthy controls (r=-0. 24; P=0.08) which did not occur in depressed patients (r=0.17; P=0. 96), while the calculated ratio of DHEA to testosterone was similar in both groups (0.2+/-0.14 vs 0.13+/-0.7; P=0.21, unpaired t-test). In conclusion, androstenedione, testosterone and DHT concentrations all were increased in hypercortisolemic women with severe major depression. These findings are best explained as a consequence of an overstimulation of the adrenal glands through pituitary and hypothalamic sites of the HPA-system.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed2000

The effect of rivastigmine on sleep in elderly healthy subjects.

Previous research has shown that acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may affect REM sleep, however, results are inconclusive. From the present findings it is concluded that the effects of rivastigmine, a reversible acetycholinesterase inhibitor, on REM sleep are more pronounced in the elderly where we found REM latency to be significantly reduced. This may be explained by better bioavailability and/or by reduced stability of the circadian rhythmicity in elderly individuals. Because rivastigmine is used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, further research investigating the relationship between the REM enhancing properties of rivastigmine and cognitive functioning seems promising.

Aged↗
PubMed2000

Evidence of a founder BRCA1 mutation in Scotland.

BRCA1 mutations have been identified in breast and ovarian cancer families from diverse ethnic backgrounds. We studied 17 different families with the BRCA1 2800delAA mutation; seven were ascertained in Scotland (Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, St Andrews), five in Canada (Toronto, Victoria) and five in the United States (Chicago, Philadelphia, Seattle). Overall there was a clear preponderance of Scottish ancestry. Genotype analysis performed on key members from 17 families was consistent with a common haplotype, strongly suggesting a single ancestral origin. A possible link was established between two families by tracing their genealogies through the records of the Registrar General for Scotland. This is the first example of a BRCA1 mutation likely to be derived from a common founder in Scotland. Further studies will be necessary to estimate more accurately the population frequency of the BRCA1 2800delAA mutation among unselected cases of breast and ovarian cancer in Scotland and the UK.

Breast Neoplasms↗
PubMed2000

Major depression and impaired glucose tolerance.

Hypercortisolism is a frequent endocrine sign in major depression and cortisol is a well-known anti-insulinergic hormone. Impaired oral glucose tolerance has already been described in major depression. However, thus far no information is available on spontaneous, circadian insulin secretion in patients. We studied 26 depressed inpatients along with 33 age- and sex-matched controls. Blood samples were collected at 30-minute intervals over a period of 26 hours (h) for estimation of cortisol, insulin and glucose. No differences in 24 h mean-insulin and glucose concentrations were detectable despite significantly reduced caloric consumption in patients. At the second morning a strictly standardized test meal of 2125 kjoule was given. Insulin and glucose responses to the test meal were significantly increased in hypercortisolemic patients compared to controls. Hence, patients with major depression have an impaired insulin sensitivity.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2000

Purification and immunobiochemical characterization of folding variants of the recombinant major wasp allergen Ves v 5 (antigen 5).

BACKGROUND: Antigen 5 is one of three major allergens in wasp venoms, but unlike phospholipase A(1) and hyaluronidase, both of which are enzymes, its biological function is unknown. The cDNA coding for this allergen has been isolated and used for recombinant expression. Thorough analysis of the expression product is essential in order to evaluate the usefulness for in vivo or in vitro application. OBJECTIVE: In this study, folding variants of the recombinant major allergen Ves v 5 from Vespula vulgaris were immunologically and biochemically investigated in order to determine their possible applicability for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. METHOD: The cDNA encoding Ves v 5 was cloned into the expression vector pSE420 which generates recombinant products lacking a tag sequence. After expression, inclusion bodies were purified, subsequently denatured and dialyzed against different solutions. The structural properties of soluble proteins were analyzed by size exclusion chromatography, non-reducing SDS-PAGE, native PAGE, N-terminal sequencing, proteolytic digestion and ion exchange chromatography. Immunological investigations were performed by using different monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for Ves v 5 and IgE from patients allergic to wasp venom allergens. RESULTS: After dialysis, soluble monomeric recombinant Ves v 5 was more than 95% pure in each case. Using different dialysis solutions, clearly distinguishable folding variants were obtained. In one case, the recombinant allergen was comparable with the natural counterpart in respect of migration in non-reducing SDS-PAGE, native PAGE and IgE reactivity. This variant reacted with two different Ves v 5-specific mAbs and produced a stable fragment after proteolytic digestion. Elution from a cation exchange chromatography column was achieved with 320 mM NaCl. In two other cases, folding variants exhibited a different migration behavior in SDS-PAGE and native PAGE compared with the natural allergen. Also, the mAb 1E11 recognized none of these variants since it presumably detected a conformational epitope. Moreover, the IgE reactivity was clearly reduced and proteolytic digestion effected almost complete degradation. These variants eluted from the cation exchange column with 400 mM NaCl. CONCLUSION: Defined folding strategies resulted in both soluble misfolded variants with reduced IgE reactivity, potentially suitable for immunotherapy, and natural-like folded variants for diagnosis.

Allergens↗
PubMed2000

High frequency of HCV infection in individuals with isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen.

Although isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) is frequently nonspecific or may be the only serological marker of past self-limiting hepatitis B, where antibodies against the surface antigen have disappeared, isolated anti-HBc seropositivity is frequently associated with chronic hepatitis B in HIV- and HCV-infected individuals. Of 5,520 samples that tested positive for anti-HBc (IMx and AxSYM CORE, Abbott, Delkenheim, Germany) at the Institute of Virology, University Clinic Frankfurt during the time interval from January 1994 to February 1996, 643 (11.6%) were isolated anti-HBc-reactive in the IMx and AxSYM CORE assays (inhibition values >90%). There was a statistically significant association between isolated anti-HBc seropositivity and HCV and HIV/HCV coinfection (p < 0.05). A total of 190 samples were available for further testing. Six (3.2%) of 190 isolated anti-HBc-positive samples were considered false-positive since they were only positive in the AxSYM or IMx CORE assay and a linear decrease of the measured signal could not be observed in dilution series. Of 184 serum samples tested with nested PCR using primers of the S genome region, only 6 (3.3%) were HBV DNA-positive. Anti-HBc-IgM antibody could be detected in 3 (1.6 %) of the tested samples using the IMx CORE-M. With the more sensitive VIDAS HBc IgM specific IgM antibody was detected in 15 (8.5%) of 177 samples at concentrations ranging from 10 to >200 Paul Ehrlich Institute U/ml. HIV or HCV coinfection was present in 28.1% and 37.5% of isolated anti-HBc-positive individuals, respectively. We conclude from our observations that only a limited proportion of anti-HBc-isolated individuals are potentially infectious, however anti-HBc-IgM which is detectable in any form of liver disease associated with HBV infection was present in more than 8% of the individuals. Of isolated anti-HBc-positive sera 37% were positive for anti-HCV, suggesting that anti-HCV antibody testing should be performed in isolated anti-HBc-positive individuals.

DNA, Viral↗
PubMed2000

Lumbar bone mineral density in patients with major depression: evidence of increased bone loss at follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated whether an increase in the loss of bone mineral density occurs with major depression. METHOD: The authors measured lumbar bone density with the use of quantitative computerized tomography in a longitudinal assessment of 18 depressed patients older than 40 years on hospital admission and 21 healthy women and men. The follow-up period lasted at least 24 months. RESULTS: A repeated measures analysis of variance model with depression and gender as factors showed that bone loss was greater for the depressed patients than for the comparison subjects and greater for men than for women. CONCLUSIONS: Major depression may be associated with increased bone loss, especially for men.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2000

Increased diurnal plasma concentrations of cortisone in depressed patients.

The enzyme 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11-beta-HSD) regulates glucocorticoid activity by converting cortisol into cortisone and vice versa. Frequent signs of major depression are elevated concentrations of circulating cortisol and ACTH. However, no information is available about the activity of 11-beta-HSD in this disorder. Therefore, we compared diurnal plasma concentrations of cortisol and cortisone and their ratios, reflecting 11-beta-HSD activity, in 25 severely depressed patients (Hamilton Depression Scale, 29 +/- 6; 14 men, 11 women, age 22-77 yr; mean, 47 +/- 16) and 30 control persons (20 men, 10 women age 23-85 yr; mean, 51 +/- 19). Cortisol and cortisone were measured at 0900 h, 1100 h, 1300 h, 2000 h, 2200 h, 0100 h, 0300 h, and 0700 h with specific RIAs after extraction. Both cortisol and cortisone concentrations were significantly increased in patients compared with controls (cortisol, 251.7 +/- 113.1 vs. 160 +/- 96.6 nmol/L; cortisone, 32.8 +/- 10.9 vs. 21.9 +/- 10.9 nmol/L). The calculated ratios of cortisol to cortisone were similar in controls and patients. Similar to cortisol, the circadian variation of cortisone was flattened in patients with the ratio of maximal cortisone to minimal cortisone being 1.9-fold higher in controls than in patients. There was no gender-specific difference in cortisone values neither in patients nor in controls. We conclude that in major depression increased cortisol is not due, at least partly, to an altered 11-beta-HSD activity or to a decrease in cortisone.

11-beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗
PubMed2000

Factors associated with decisions about clinical BRCA1/2 testing.

Testing for mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 can provide important information about breast and ovarian cancer risk to a small but identifiable subgroup of women. Women who test positive for a BRCA1/2 mutation can pursue more aggressive cancer surveillance and prevention regimens. Among families with known mutations, women who test negative may avoid unnecessary interventions. Currently, little is known about the factors associated with the use of clinical BRCA1/2 testing. The objective of this study was to determine the factors associated with decisions about clinical BRCA1/2 testing among women undergoing clinical BRCA1/2 counseling through a retrospective cohort study of women who participated in a university-based clinic offering breast cancer risk assessment, genetic counseling, and BRCA1/2 testing between January 1996 and April 1998. From the 251 eligible women who responded to a follow-up survey, 125 (50%) had undergone or were undergoing BRCA1/2 testing, 86 (34%) had decided not to undergo testing, and 40 (16%) were undecided about testing. After multivariate adjustment, we found that women who chose to undergo BRCA1/2 testing were more likely to have a known familial mutation [odds ratio (OR), 7.46; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.97-62.16], more likely to be Ashkenazi Jewish (OR, 6.37; 95% CI, 2.68-15.12), more likely to want cancer risk information for family members (OR, 1.93; 95% CI, 0.99-4.14), more likely to want information about ovarian cancer risk (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.18-3.69), and less likely to be concerned about insurance or job discrimination (OR, 0.45; 95% CI, 0.21-0.94). These associations were also found in the subgroup of women with a predicted probability of a BRCA1 mutation of 25%. Our study suggests that approximately half of eligible women choose to undergo clinical BRCA1/2 testing after participating in counseling. Women who have the highest risk of carrying a mutation, and thus the greatest probability of gaining some useful information from the test results, are most likely to undergo testing. Women who undergo testing are also more interested in ovarian cancer risk information and less concerned about job and insurance discrimination.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Expression and characterization of wild type and mutant recombinant human sulfamidase. Implications for Sanfilippo (Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA) syndrome.

Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA (MPS-IIIA) is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder caused by the deficiency of sulfamidase (NS; EC 3.10.1.1), resulting in defective degradation and storage of heparan sulfate. This paper reports the production and characterization of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against recombinant human sulfamidase (rhNS) to quantitate and characterize normal and mutant sulfamidase produced from the wild type NS expression vector. Glycosylation and phosphorylation studies of immunoprecipitated rhNS show that all five potential glycosylation sites are utilized, with three high mannose/hybrid oligosaccharides and two simpler chains, with at least one functional mannose 6-phosphate group. An NS quantification system was developed to determine the effect of the three most common and severe patient mutations: S66W (Italy), R74C (Poland), and R245H (The Netherlands). The quantity and specific activity of expressed mutant rhNS was significantly lower than expressed normal rhNS, with 0.3, 0.2, and 0.05% of normal rhNS produced and 15, 17, and 83% of normal specific activity for S66W, R74C, and R245H observed, respectively. The recent structural elucidation of N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase was utilized to postulate the effect on the structure-function relationship of NS. The characterization of normal and mutated rhNS has relevance for efficient diagnosis and therapeutic developments for MPS-IIIA patients.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Pregnancy and risk of early breast cancer in carriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2.

BACKGROUND: Early age at first full-term pregnancy and increasing parity are associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. However, whether pregnancy decreases the risk of early-onset hereditary breast cancer is unknown. There is concern that pregnancy may increase breast-cancer risk in carriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 germline mutations. We aimed to establish whether pregnancy is a risk factor for hereditary breast cancer. METHODS: We did a matched case-control study of breast cancer in women who carry deleterious BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Cases were carriers who developed breast cancer by age 40 years, and controls were carriers of the same age without breast cancer, or who were diagnosed with breast cancer after age 40 years. Women who had undergone preventive mastectomy, hysterectomy, or oophorectomy, or who were diagnosed with ovarian cancer before the age at which breast cancer was diagnosed in the matched case were excluded. Information about pregnancies and pregnancy outcome was derived from a questionnaire completed by women in the course of genetic counselling. FINDINGS: A higher proportion of cases than controls had had a full term pregnancy (173/236 vs 146/236; odds ratio 1.71 [95% CI 1.13-2.62], p=0.01). The mean number of births was also greater for cases than for controls (1.62 vs 1.38, p=0.04). The risk increased with the number of births and did not diminish with time since last pregnancy. There were no significant differences in age at first birth or age at last birth between cases and controls. INTERPRETATION: Carriers of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations who have children are significantly more likely to develop breast cancer by age 40 than carriers who are nulliparous. Each pregnancy is associated with an increased cancer risk. An early first pregnancy does not confer protection for carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Spontaneous acceptance or rejection of orthotopic liver transplants in outbred and partially inbred miniature swine.

BACKGROUND: Results of clinical liver transplantation have shown that rejection and loss of human liver allografts occurs despite immunosuppression. Because genetic disparity and liver immunogenicity remain a matter of controversy, we reexamined the fate of outbred liver allografts without immunosuppression and used partially inbred miniature swine, in which the genetics of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens have been characterized and can be controlled. METHODS: Orthotopic liver transplantation was performed between pairs of outbred domestic farm pigs and between pairs of inbred miniature swine with genetically defined major histocompatibility (SLA) loci. A passive splenic and vena caval to jugular vein shunt with systemic heparinization prevented hypotension during the anhepatic phase. Immunological responses were monitored by mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC), CML, skin graft rejection, liver biopsies, and serial serum chemistries. RESULTS: Median survival of technically successful liver allografts between pairs of outbred pigs (n=20) was 38 days and between partially inbred swine matched at the SLA locus (n=17) was 79 days. MLC responsiveness did not correlate with the development of rejection. Five of 20 (25%) outbred pigs and 6 of 17 (35%) MHC matched inbred miniature swine survived more than 100 days. In the long-term survivors, donor, but not third party, MHC matched skin graft survival times were prolonged. In contrast, all SLA-mismatched inbred recipients (n=26) died rapidly from massive liver rejection, with a median survival time of 9 days. In these rejecting animals, the marked MLC responsiveness to donor lymphocytes evident pretransplant diminished rapidly after transplantation, but an undiminished PHA responsiveness and a blunted third party MLC response persisted. CONCLUSION: The length of survival and the degree and incidence of rejection were similar in outbred pigs and in SLA-matched inbred miniature pigs, indicating that the outbred animals were, therefore, probably closely related and shared relevant genes. However, survival was significantly shortened and liver allograft rejection was accelerated in SLA-mismatched inbred swine. These results indicate that major histocompatibility differences play an important role in the rejection of liver allografts, as is true for other vascularized grafts in the unimmunosuppressed recipient. The development of liver allograft rejection across non-MHC differences is variable and, when present, appears to be a chronic process.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Quantitative determination of free intracellular amino acids in single human polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Recent developments in sample preparation and high-performance liquid chromatography.

The described procedure allows quantitative, highly precise and reproducible analysis of free amino acid concentrations in single polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMLs). This method is superior to previously described procedures with regard to sample size, PML separation, sample preparation and stability, as well as the chosen fluorescence high-performance liquid chromatography procedure, and can satisfy the high demands for ultra-sensitive and comprehensive amino acid analysis, especially for the continuous surveillance of severe diseases and organ dysfunction.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1999

Human hippocampus associates information in memory.

The hippocampal formation, one of the most complex and vulnerable brain structures, is recognized as a crucial brain area subserving human long-term memory. Yet, its specific functions in memory are controversial. Recent experimental results suggest that the hippocampal contribution to human memory is limited to episodic memory, novelty detection, semantic (deep) processing of information, and spatial memory. We measured the regional cerebral blood flow by positron-emission tomography while healthy volunteers learned pairs of words with different learning strategies. These led to different forms of learning, allowing us to test the degree to which they challenge hippocampal function. Neither novelty detection nor depth of processing activated the hippocampal formation as much as semantically associating the primarily unrelated words in memory. This is compelling evidence for another function of the human hippocampal formation in memory: establishing semantic associations.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Nine breast angiosarcomas after conservative treatment for breast carcinoma: a survey from French comprehensive Cancer Centers.

OBJECTIVES: To conduct a survey of the angiosarcomas developing after breast conservation for carcinoma in the French Cancer Centers, to study the evolution of these cases in detail, and to review literature in an attempt to propose an optimal treatment scheme. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Eleven of the 20 French Cancer Centers agreed to research and retrospectively analyze all angiosarcomas discovered in patients previously treated by conservative treatment. The majority of the patients were node negative, T1N0M0. The mean age of the patients at the time of primary breast cancer treatment was 62.5 years, and 69 years at the diagnosis of the angiosarcoma. RESULTS: During the last two decades, nearly 20,000 patients have been treated conservatively in these 11 centers, and only 9 cases of angiosarcoma were found. The median latency period between the treatment of the breast carcinoma and the diagnosis of the breast angiosarcoma was approximately 74 months, with a range of 57-108 months. Mastectomy was performed as the main treatment of this angiosarcoma. All recurrences after mastectomy for the angiosarcoma appeared within 16 months after the mastectomy. A median time of recurrence was found to be 7.5 months, regardless of the treatment. The angiosarcomas appeared to be very aggressive, and chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and sometimes hyperthermia could only palliate the condition for a short time. After the diagnosis of angiosarcoma, the median survival was 15.5 months, showing a particularly poor prognosis. Only 1 patient of 9 is alive without progressive disease at 32 months after salvage mastectomy for the recurrence of the angiosarcoma. Precise data obtained from 11 centers show that, of 18115 breast carcinomas treated conservatively, only 9 breast angiosarcomas are reported, which represents a prevalence of 5 cases of angiosarcoma per 10,000, which is the same prevalence for primary breast angiosarcomas occurring in healthy breasts. CONCLUSION: Angiosarcoma developing after breast conserving therapy for carcinoma is a rare event, and induction of it by treatment is controversial. However, early diagnosis is essential and it appears that radical mastectomy gives the highest chance of cure and the best long-term survival.

Age of Onset↗
PubMed1999

"Allergen engineering": variants of the timothy grass pollen allergen Phl p 5b with reduced IgE-binding capacity but conserved T cell reactivity.

One problem of conventional allergen-specific immunotherapy is the risk of anaphylactic reactions. A new approach to make immunotherapy safer and more efficient might be the application of engineered allergens with reduced IgE-binding capacity but retained T cell reactivity. Using overlapping dodeca-peptides, the dominant T cell epitopes of the timothy grass pollen allergen Phl p 5b were identified. By site-directed mutagenesis outside these regions, point and deletion mutants were generated. Allergen variants were analyzed for IgE-binding capacity with sera of different grass pollen allergic patients by Western blotting, Dot blotting, and EAST inhibition test, and for histamine releasing capacity with peripheral blood basophils from different patients. The deletion mutants revealed significantly reduced IgE reactivity and histamine releasing capacity, compared with the wild-type Phl p 5b. Furthermore, in vivo skin prick tests showed that the deletion mutants had a significantly lower potency to induce cutaneous reactions than the wild-type Phl p 5b. On the other hand, T cell clones and T cell lines from different allergic patients showed comparable proliferation after stimulation with allergen variants and wild-type Phl p 5b. Considering their reduced anaphylactogenic potential together with their conserved T cell reactivity, the engineered allergens could be important tools for efficient and safe allergen-specific immunotherapy.

Allergens↗