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Biomedical subjects

A Reiner

Publications and source records attributed to A Reiner.

At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources
PubMed1998

Aspartame: neuropsychologic and neurophysiologic evaluation of acute and chronic effects.

BACKGROUND: Neurobehavioral symptoms have been reported anecdotally with aspartame. OBJECTIVE: This study sought to determine whether aspartame can disrupt cognitive, neurophysiologic, or behavioral functioning in normal individuals. DESIGN: Forty-eight healthy volunteers completed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. The first month was aspartame free. Subjects then consumed sodas and capsules with placebo, aspartame, or sucrose for 20 d each. Order was randomized and subjects were assigned to either a high- (45 mg x kg body wt(-1) x d(-1)) or low- (15 mg x kg body wt(-1) x d(-1)) dose aspartame group. Neuropsychologic and laboratory testing was done on day 10 of each treatment period to determine possible acute effects and on day 20 for possible chronic effects. RESULTS: Plasma phenylalanine concentrations increased significantly during aspartame treatment. Neuropsychologic results; adverse experiences; amino acid, insulin, and glucose values; and electroencephalograms were compared by sex and by treatment. No significant differences were found for any dependent measure. CONCLUSION: Large daily doses of aspartame had no effect on neuropsychologic, neurophysiologic, or behavioral functioning in healthy young adults.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Cognitive knowledge decline after Advanced Trauma Life Support courses.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cognitive knowledge decline among graduates of the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) program in Israel, to compare the rate of decline between surgeons and nonsurgeons, and to recommend appropriate timing for refresher courses. METHODS: A prospective study based on multiple-choice question test results of 220 ATLS course graduates was conducted 3 to 60 months after course completion. These results were then compared with the examination results immediately after the course. A statistical model based on survival analysis was used to evaluate the decline pattern and extent and to compare the study groups. RESULTS: A significant decline of cognitive knowledge over time among ATLS graduates was demonstrated. This decline was significantly greater in the nonsurgical group. A critical point of 20% cognitive knowledge loss among 50% of the examined physicians was observed around the 180th week after completion of the course. CONCLUSION: Physicians taking the ATLS course lose a significant part of their acquired cognitive knowledge after 3.5 years. Surgeons retain their cognitive knowledge for longer periods of time. Based on the study results, the optimal timing for a refresher course is between 3 and 4 years after the initial ATLS course.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Physiological and molecular properties of AMPA/Kainate receptors expressed by striatal medium spiny neurons.

The mechanisms by which glutamate shapes the activity of striatal medium spiny neurons are of fundamental importance to our understanding of normative and pathological striatal physiology. Non-N-Methyl-D-aspartate (non-NMDA) glutamate receptor expression and function were studied in medium spiny neurons with a combination of single cell RT-PCR, immunocytochemistry and whole-cell voltage-clamp techniques. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis found that GluR2 mRNA appeared to be the most abundant and widely distributed AMPA receptor mRNA. GluR1 was also commonly detected. However, GluR3 mRNA was preferentially expressed by neurons coexpressing substance P and enkephalin and GluR4 mRNA was not detected in identified medium spiny neurons. All neuronal classes appeared to express GluR5 or GluR6 and/or GluR7 mRNA in addition to kainate (KA) subunit mRNA. Immunocytochemical studies confirmed the mRNA distributions and also revealed that GluR1 protein was largely restricted to dendritic spines. Although the mRNA and protein for both alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-ioxyzole-4-proprionic acid (AMPA) and KA class subunits was detected, the physiological response to glutamatergic ligands and the benzothiadizine cyclothiazide was characteristic of AMPA, not KA receptors. The AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI 52466 blocked the response to AMPA and all but a small transient component of the response to KA. The current-voltage relationship of the AMPA-evoked currents was relatively linear but Ca2+ fluorometry revealed that substantial changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration accompanied exposure to either agonist. These results argue that somatodendritic non-NMDA glutamate receptors in medium spiny neurons are primarily GluR2-containing receptors of the AMPA class but that activation of these receptors as a group nevertheless results in a significant Ca2+ influx.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Ultrastructural study of nitric oxide synthase-containing striatal neurons and their relationship with parvalbumin-containing neurons in rats.

Single- and double-label electron microscopic immunocytochemistry was used to examine the ultrastructure of striatal neurons containing nitric oxide synthase (NOS+) and evaluate the synaptic relationship of NOS+ striatal neurons with those containing parvalbumin (PV+). In both the single-label and double-label studies, NOS+ perikarya were observed to possess polylobulated nuclei. In the single-label studies, NOS+ terminals were seen forming synaptic contacts with dendritic shafts and dendritic spines that did not contain NOS, but not with NOS+ perikarya or dendrites. In the double-label studies (using diaminobenzidine and silver intensified immunogold as markers), nitric oxide synthase and parvalbumin immunoreactions were found in two different populations of medium-sized aspiny striatal neurons. The PV+ axon terminals were seen forming symmetric synapses on the dendritic spines of neurons devoid of PV or NOS labeling, on PV+ dendrites, and on NOS+ soma and dendrites. In contrast, NOS+ terminals were not observed to form synaptic contacts with the dendrites or soma of either PV+ or NOS+ neurons. These findings suggest that NOS+ striatal interneurons form synaptic contact with the spines and presumably the dendrites of striatal projection neurons, but not with the dendrites or soma of PV+ or NOS+ striatal interneurons. NOS+ neurons do, however, receive synaptic input from PV+ neurons.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Innervation of orbital and choroidal blood vessels by the pterygopalatine ganglion in pigeons.

Orbital and choroidal blood vessels in mammals are known to receive a parasympathetic innervation from the pterygopalatine ganglion, which appears to utilize vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and nitric oxide (NO) to increase choroidal blood flow. The present studies were undertaken to elucidate the anatomical and neurotransmitter organization of the pterygopalatine ganglion input to orbital and choroidal blood vessels in pigeons. Single- or double-label immunohistochemistry were employed on paraformaldehyde-fixed cryostat sections of the pigeon eye and surrounding orbital tissue to localize 1) VIP+ neurons and fibers; 2) choline acetyltransferase (CHAT)-containing cholinergic neurons and fibers; 3) axons containing the 3A10 neurofilament-associated antigen; and 4) neuronal NO synthase (nNOS)-containing neurons and fibers. NOS+ neurons and fibers were also identified by NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry in sections and whole-mount specimens. The pterygopalatine ganglion was found to consist of an interconnected series of three to four main microganglia of about 50-200 neurons each and numerous lesser microganglia. The major microganglia of the pterygopalatine network in pigeon lie along the superior aspect of the Harderian gland, with many additional fibers and microganglia of the network encircling the gland. Neurons of all microganglia were extremely rich in VIP, nNOS, and NADPH-diaphorase and moderate in CHAT. The majority of the pterygopalatine ganglion neurons were observed to co-contain VIP and nNOS. Axons labeled for VIP, nNOS, NADPH-diaphorase, or the 3A10 antigen could be traced from the pterygopalatine ganglion network to perivascular fiber plexi on orbital blood vessels. These orbital vessels, many of which enter the choroid posteriorly and nasally, appear to be a conduit by which pterygopalatine postganglionic fibers reach the choroid. The pterygopalatine postganglionic fibers were also seen to innervate the Harderian gland and contribute branches to the nearby ophthalmic nerve. Within the choroid, VIP+ fibers were widely scattered and sparse but were most abundant in nasal choroid. A few VIP+ and NADPH- diaphorase+ neurons were also observed in the choroid. These results suggest that pterygopalatine ganglion neurons of birds use VIP and NO to exert vasodilatory control over blood flow to and within the avian choroid.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Evidence for a possible avian dorsal thalamic region comparable to the mammalian ventral anterior, ventral lateral, and oral ventroposterolateral nuclei.

In the present study, we investigated whether a dorsal thalamic region comparable to the motor part of the mammalian ventral tier (the ventral anterior nucleus, the ventral lateral nucleus, and the oral ventroposterolateral nucleus) exists in pigeon. With this aim, we reinvestigated the projections of the pigeon dorsal pallidum to the dorsal thalamus by using 1) injections of the anterogradely transported form of biotinylated dextran amine (BDA; 10,000 molecular weight) in the pigeon dorsal pallidum (paleostriatum primitivum) and 2) injections of the retrogradely transported form of BDA (3,000 molecular weight) in the pigeon dorsal thalamus. Our results indicate that the dorsal pallidum in pigeons projects to three areas of the dorsal thalamus: the dorsointermediate posterior nucleus, the ventrointermediate area, and the nucleus subrotundus. Only the projection to the dorsointermediate posterior nucleus was described previously (Karten and Dubbeldam [1973] J. Comp. Neurol. 148:61-90; Kitt and Brauth [1982] Neuroscience 6:1551-1566). To investigate whether any of the dorsal thalamic nuclei receiving pallidal input project to a motor cortical field, injections of the retrograde tracer Fluoro-Gold were placed into the rostral Wulst. This is an avian cortical field that appears to contain a region comparable to mammalian primary somatomotor cortex (Karten [1971] Anat. Rec. 169:353; Wild [1992] J. Comp. Neurol. 287:1-18). Our results indicate that neurons in the rostral ventrointermediate area, but not in the nucleus subrotundus, the dorsointermediate posterior nucleus, or the intermediate or caudal parts of the ventrointermediate area, project to the rostral Wulst. In addition to the input from the dorsal pallidum, the avian ventrointermediate area also receives input from the lateral substantia nigra and the lateral and internal cerebellar nuclei (present results). Our results suggest the existence in birds of a pallidothalamocortical loop similar to the pallidoventral tier-motor cortex loop of mammals and suggest that the avian ventrointermediate area is comparable to the motor part of the mammalian ventral tier in both location and connections. If this is confirmed by physiological experiments, then it would indicate that basal ganglia control of movement mediated by a pallidothalamocortical loop may have evolved with the stem reptiles.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Enhanced cleavage of type II collagen by collagenases in osteoarthritic articular cartilage.

We demonstrate the direct involvement of increased collagenase activity in the cleavage of type II collagen in osteoarthritic human femoral condylar cartilage by developing and using antibodies reactive to carboxy-terminal (COL2-3/4C(short)) and amino-terminal (COL2-1/4N1) neoepitopes generated by cleavage of native human type II collagen by collagenase matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 (collagenase-1), MMP-8 (collagenase-2), and MMP-13 (collagenase-3). A secondary cleavage followed the initial cleavage produced by these recombinant collagenases. This generated neoepitope COL2-1/4N2. There was significantly more COL2-3/4C(short) neoepitope in osteoarthritis (OA) compared to adult nonarthritic cartilages as determined by immunoassay of cartilage extracts. A synthetic preferential inhibitor of MMP-13 significantly reduced the unstimulated release in culture of neoepitope COL2-3/4C(short) from human osteoarthritic cartilage explants. These data suggest that collagenase(s) produced by chondrocytes is (are) involved in the cleavage and denaturation of type II collagen in articular cartilage, that this is increased in OA, and that MMP-13 may play a significant role in this process.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Age-dependent differences in survival of striatal somatostatin-NPY-NADPH-diaphorase-containing interneurons versus striatal projection neurons after intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid in rats.

Some authors have reported greater sparing of neurons containing somatostatin (SS)-neuropeptide Y (NPY)-NADPH-diaphorase (NADPHd) than projection neurons after intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid (QA), an excitotoxin acting at NMDA receptors. Such findings have been used to support the NMDA receptor excitotoxin hypothesis of Huntington's disease (HD) and to claim that intrastriatal QA produces an animal model of HD. Other studies have, however, reported that SS/NPY/NADPHd interneurons are highly vulnerable to QA. We examined the influence of animal age (young versus mature), QA concentration (225 mM versus 50 mM), and injection speed (3 min versus 15 min) on the relative SS/NPY/NADPHd neuron survival in eight groups of rats that varied along these parameters to determine the basis of such prior discrepancies. Two weeks after QA injection, we analyzed the relative survival of neurons labeled by NADPHd histochemistry, SS/NPY immunohistochemistry, or cresyl violet staining (which stains all striatal neurons, the majority of which are projection neurons) in the so-called lesion transition zone (i.e., the zone of 40-60% neuronal survival). We found that age, and to a lesser extent injection speed, had a significant effect on relative SS/NPY/NADPHd interneuron survival. The NADPHd- and SS/NPY-labeled neurons typically survived better than projection neurons in young rats and more poorly in mature rats. This trend was greatly accentuated with fast QA injection. Age-related differences may be attributable to declines in projection neuron sensitivity to QA with age. Since rapid QA injections result in excitotoxin efflux, we interpret the effect of injection speed to suggest that brief exposure to a large dose of QA (with fast injection) may better accentuate the differential vulnerabilities of NADPHd/SS/NPY interneurons and projection neurons than does exposure to the same total amount of QA delivered more gradually (slow injection). These findings reconcile the discordant results found by previous authors and suggest that QA injected into rat striatum does reproduce the neurochemical traits of HD under some circumstances. These findings are consistent with a role of excitotoxicity in HD pathogenesis, and they also have implications for the basis of the more pernicious nature of striatal neuron loss in juvenile onset HD.

Aging↗
PubMed1997

The efferent projections of the dorsal and ventral pallidal parts of the pigeon basal ganglia, studied with biotinylated dextran amine.

In the present study we have investigated the efferent projections of both the dorsal and the ventral pallidum of the pigeon basal ganglia, using the sensitive anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine [Veenman C. L. et al. (1992) J. Neurosci. Meth. 41, 239-254]. Injections of biotinylated dextran amine in the pigeon dorsal pallidum produced numerous fibers and terminals in specific nuclei of the thalamus, hypothalamus, pretectum and midbrain tegmentum. In the thalamus, labeled fibers and terminals were observed in the avian thalamic reticular nucleus, the proposed motor part of the avian ventral tier (ventrointermediate area), the avian parafascicular nucleus (nucleus dorsointermedius posterior), as well as in the avian nucleus subrotundus (which may be comparable to the posterior intralaminar nuclei of mammals). Labeled fibers and terminals were also observed in the avian subthalamic nucleus (anterior nucleus of the ansa lenticularis), in the pretectum (nucleus spiriformis lateralis) and in the avian substantia nigra pars reticulata. Injections of biotinylated dextran amine in the pigeon ventral pallidum produced fibers and terminals in specific centers of the telencephalon, hypothalamus, thalamus, epithalamus, and midbrain and isthmic tegmentum. Labeled fibers and terminals were also observed in the avian subthalamic nucleus and the inmediately adjacent lateral hypothalamus, the avian thalamic reticular nucleus, the avian medidorsal nucleusaand posterior intralaminar nuclei, and the lateral habenula. Finally, labeled fibers and terminals were found in the ventral tegmental area, the avian substantia nigra pars compacta and the midbrain/isthmic tegmentum, which includes the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Our results indicate that both the dorsal and ventral pallida of birds have unique and specific projection patterns, which are very similar to those of their counterparts in mammals. Our study suggests that these avian basal ganglia regions may be related mainly to somatomotor and limbic functions, respectively.

Anatomy, Artistic↗
PubMed1997

p53 protein expression, cell proliferation and steroid hormone receptors in ductal and lobular in situ carcinomas of the breast.

p53 and c-erbB-2 expression, and their correlation with cell proliferation and steroid hormone receptors, were investigated in 121 carcinomas, 23 lobular in situ carcinomas (LCIS), 74 intraductal carcinomas (DCIS) and 24 minimal invasive carcinomas. DCIS were classified according to the EORTC classification. All markers were measured immunohistochemically on paraffin sections. None of the LCIS, 9 DCIS and 9 minimal invasive cancers showed nuclear positivity for p53. A strong association between histological type and p53 expression was found. Proliferation rates correlated with p53 expression. c-erbB-2 positivity was found in 1 LCIS, 27 DCIS and 12 minimal invasive cancers. There was a significant correlation between p53 expression and c-erbB-2. Both parameters were associated with high proliferation rate and negativity for steroid hormone receptor status. Nuclear pleomorphism could become a comparable prognostic marker in DCIS as it is for infiltrating carcinomas.

Biomarkers, Tumor↗
PubMed1997

Therapeutic electrical stimulation following selective posterior rhizotomy in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized clinical trial.

A randomized controlled trial was carried out to determine the effectiveness of therapeutic electrical stimulation (TES) in improving the function of children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP), who had undergone selective posterior lumbosacral rhizotomy more than a year previously. Children were randomly assigned to groups to receive TES for 1 year, or to have no TES. The primary outcome was the change in the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM), a quantitative and validated measure for use in children with spastic CP. There was a statistically significant and clinically important improvement in outcome for the treated children, with the mean change in the GMFM score at one year being 5.5% compared with 1.9% in the untreated group (P = 0.001). TES was simple to use, had no significant complications, and was well accepted by the children and their caregivers, as indicated by an average compliance of 93% for the application of TES on a nightly basis over the course of the study. It was concluded that TES may be beneficial in children with spastic CP who have undergone a selective posterior rhizotomy procedure more than 1 year previously.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Avian homologues of mammalian intralaminar, mediodorsal and midline thalamic nuclei: immunohistochemical and hodological evidence.

This paper presents and reviews data suggesting that the dorsal thalamic zone (abbreviated DTZ) in birds is homologous to the intralaminar, midline, and mediodorsal thalamic nuclear complex (abbreviated IMMC) in mammals. The DTZ is located dorsomedially in the diencephalon of birds and consists of several subnuclei: nucleus dorsomedialis anterior thalami (DMA), nucleus dorsomedialis posterior thalami (DMP), nucleus dorsolateralis anterior thalami, pars medialis (DLM), nucleus dorsointermedius posterior thalami (DIP), nucleus dorsolateralis posterior thalami (DLP), and nucleus subhabenularis lateralis (SHL). Our immunohistochemical studies show that: (1) SHL and medial and dorsal parts of DMA and DMP are relatively rich in GABAergic, enkephalin-containing, substance P-containing, and cholinergic fibers; (2) lateral parts of DMA and DMP are relatively poor in these neurotransmitters; and (3) DIP, DLP, and DLM are moderately rich in cholinergic and substance P-containing fibers. Our retrograde pathway tracing studies indicate that the DIP and DLP in the more lateral parts of DTZ project to somatic striatum, while the DMA, DMP, and SHL located more medially in the DTZ project to visceral/limbic striatum. Our anterograde tracing studies indicate that DIP receives afferents from the dorsal pallidum, whereas DMA and DMP appear to receive afferents from both the ventral striatum and ventral pallidum. Diverse prior studies have shown that in general medial and lateral components of DTZ are connected with visceral/ limbic and somatic brain regions, respectively. These characteristics indicate that: (1) SHL and medial and dorsal parts of DMA and DMP are comparable to mammalian midline thalamic nuclei, including the medial components of the intralaminar nuclei; (2) lateral parts of DMA and DMP are comparable to the mediodorsal nucleus in mammals; (3) DIP is comparable to the parafascicular nucleus in mammals; and (4) DLM and DLP are comparable to the laterally located intralaminar nuclei in mammals. The comparability of avian DTZ and mammalian IMMC suggests that they evolved from thalamic precursor nuclei present in the common reptilian ancestors and that they may perform similar roles in the movement control function of the basal ganglia.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The accumulated experience of the Israeli Advanced Trauma Life Support program.

BACKGROUND: Between January 1990 and May 1995 one faculty in Israel taught Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) courses to 3,700 physicians. Two types of courses were given to three subpopulations. We studied the influence of demographic variables on students' achievements in the course and compared students' achievements as a function of their course type. STUDY DESIGN: This study was conducted as a concurrent longitudinal study. RESULTS: Achievements of 3,700 students were analyzed. The precourse grade, type of course, and their interaction were found to have a significant effect on the postcourse grades. Physicians practicing surgical subspecialties, in general, did better, as did students educated in English-speaking countries. Students who took part in the Combat Trauma Life Support (CTLS) course, which included the entire ATLS course and additional lectures and exercises, also ended with better scores. CONCLUSIONS: Physician's country of origin and clinical subspecialty have a significant effect on the cognitive achievement in the ATLS course provided in Israel. An expanded ATLS course (CTLS), to include additional military trauma topics as well as additional skill station training, can improve the results of the postcourse grades.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Evaluation of soluble CD44 splice variant v5 in the diagnosis and follow-up in breast cancer patients.

Aberrant expression of CD44 splice variants has been detected on a variety of human tumor cells. Overexpression of specific isoforms has been shown to be associated with metastasis and poor prognosis in breast cancer. We evaluated the possible utility of soluble CD44 splice variant v5 (sCD44v5) as a circulating, tumor-associated marker in breast cancer patients. Serum levels of sCD44v5 were determined in 147 healthy volunteers, in 53 patients with nonmalignant breast disease, in 85 patients with breast cancer at presentation, in 13 patients with recurrence and in 73 patients with active metastatic disease. Statistically, the levels at presentation in stages I-IV, in benign disease, and in a female control group were not significantly different. First longitudinal studies over 1-2 years in the follow-up of 28 patients who have remained tumor-free showed considerable between-patient variation while the intrapatient levels remained within relatively narrow limits. In patients with active metastatic disease, elevated levels of sCD44v5 (> 58 ng.ml-1) were detected in 50% of the cases with marked elevation in only 26%. In these cases, sCD44v5 correlated with the extent of metastatic disease and fell during clinical response to cytoreductive therapy. In comparison with CA15-3 in the patients' follow-up serum levels of sCD44v5 proved to be much less sensitive concerning lead time, percentage of raised serum levels at the time of recurrence and in metastatic disease. The value of sCD44v5 determinations in breast cancer patients was further limited by the poor diagnostic specificity of this marker due to elevated levels in smokers and chronic inflammatory disease.

Alternative Splicing↗
PubMed1996

Cellular distribution of the NMDA receptor NR2A/2B subunits in the rat striatum.

Using immunohistochemical double-labeling with a specific antibody recognizing both NR2A and NR2B subunits, we studied the cellular distribution of the NMDA receptor subunit NR2A/2B on all major known striatal neuron types. Among striatal interneurons, our results showed that none of somatostatin interneurons was labeled for NR2A/2B subunits, 56% of parvalbumin interneurons were double-labeled for NR2A/2B, and all identified cholinergic interneurons were labeled for NR2A/2B. Among striatal projections neurons, 95% of striatonigral neurons, 96% of enkephalin-containing neurons, and 98% of calbindin-containing striatal matrix neurons were double-labeled for NR2A/2B. Our studies demonstrate that there is a differential distribution of the NMDA receptor NR2A/2B subunits on striatal neuron types. The paucity of NR2A/2B subunits on NMDA receptors on striatal somatostatin interneurons may confer resistance to NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity on these neurons.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1996

Colocalization of somatostatin, neuropeptide Y, neuronal nitric oxide synthase and NADPH-diaphorase in striatal interneurons in rats.

The neuropeptides somatostatin (SS), neuropeptide Y (NPY), the enzyme neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and enzymatic activity for NADPH diaphorase (NADPHd) are extensively colocalized in striatal interneurons, which has led to the widespread tendency to operationally treat all four substances as being completely colocalized within a single class of striatal interneurons. We have explored the validity of this assumption in rat striatum using multiple-labeling methods. Conventional epi-illumination fluorescence microscopy was used to examine tissue triple labeled for SS, NPY and nNOS, or double-labeled for SS and nNOS or for SS and NPY. In tissue double-labeled for SS and nNOs, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images of SS and nNOS labeling were compared to subsequent NADPHd labeling. We found that SS, NPY and nNOS co-occurred extensively, but a moderately abundant population of neurons containing SS and nNOS but not NPY was also observed, as were small populations of SS only and nNOS only neurons. About 80% of SS+ neurons contained NPY, and no NPY neurons were devoid of SS or nNOS. All neurons containing nNOS in rat striatum were found to contain NADPHd. Combining our various quantitative observations, we found that of those striatal neurons containing any combination of SS, NPY, nNOS and NADPHd in rats, about 73% contained all four, 16% contained SS, nNOS and NADPHd, 5% contained SS only, and 6% contained only nNOS and NADPHd. These results indicate that while there is a large population of striatal neurons in which SS, NPY, nNOS and NADPHd are colocalized in rats, there may be smaller populations of striatal neurons devoid of NPY in which SS or nNOS/NADPHd are found individually or together.

Animals↗